Southeast
Asia

Asia or Southeastern
Asia

Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting
of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of
India, west of
New Guinea

New Guinea and north of Australia.[4] Southeast
Asia

Asia is
bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South
Asia

Asia and Bay
of Bengal, to the east by
Oceania
.svg/400px-Oceania_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Oceania and Pacific Ocean, and to the south
by
Australia

Australia and Indian Ocean. The region is the only part of Asia
that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere, although the majority
of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. In contemporary definition,
Southeast
Asia

Asia consists of two geographic regions:
Mainland Southeast Asia, also known historically as Indochina,
comprising Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, and West
Malaysia.
Maritime Southeast Asia, also known historically as the East Indies
and Malay Archipelago, comprising Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore,
Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Christmas Island, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, and Cocos (Keeling) Islands.
Taiwan

Taiwan is also included by many
anthropologists.
The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with heavy
seismic and volcanic activities. The
Sunda Plate

Sunda Plate is the main plate of
the region, features almost all Southeast Asian countries except
Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam, and northern
Luzon

Luzon of
the Philippines. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, and
peninsular
Malaysia

Malaysia are part of the Alpide belt, while the islands of
the
Philippines

Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both seismic
belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high
occurrences of earthquake and volcanic eruption.[5]
Southeast
Asia

Asia covers about 4.5 million km2 (1.7 million mi2), which
is 10.5% of
Asia

Asia or 3% of earth's total land area. Its total
population is more than 641 million, about 8.5% of world's population.
It is the third most populous geographical region in the world after
South
Asia

Asia and East Asia.[citation needed] The region is culturally
and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different
ethnic groups.[6] Ten countries in the region are members of ASEAN, a
regional organisation established for economic, political, military,
educational and cultural integration amongst its members.[7]
Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Political divisions
1.1.1 Sovereign states
1.1.2 Dependent territories
1.1.3 Administrative subdivisions
1.2 Geographical divisions
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2
Hindu

Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era
2.3 Spread of Islam
2.4 Trade and foreign colonisation
2.4.1 China
2.4.2 Europe
2.4.3 Japan
2.4.4 India
2.5 Contemporary history
3 Geography
3.1 Boundaries
3.2 Climate
3.3 Environment
4 Economy
5 Demographics
5.1 Ethnic groups
5.2 Religion
5.3 Languages
5.4 Cities
6 Culture
6.1 Influences
6.2 Arts
6.2.1 Music
6.2.2 Writing
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Definitions[edit]
The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by the
Europeans as the
East Indies

East Indies or simply the
Indies

Indies until the 20th
century. Chinese sources referred the region as 南洋 (Nanyang),
which literally means the Southern Ocean. The mainland section of
Southeast
Asia

Asia is referred as
Indochina

Indochina by European geographer due to
its location between
China

China and
Indian subcontinent

Indian subcontinent and cultural
influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century however,
the term became more restricted to former French
Indochina

Indochina territory
(Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia
is also known as Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European
concept of a Malay race.[8] Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia
is
Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between
Indochina

Indochina and Australasia.[9]
The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by an American pastor
Howard Malcolm in his book entitled Travels in South-Eastern Asia.
Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime
section in his definition of Southeast Asia.[10] The term was
officially used in the midst of
World War II

World War II by the Allies, through
the formation of South East
Asia

Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943.[11] SEAC
popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia", although what
constituted Southeast
Asia

Asia in the early days was not fixed, for
example the
Philippines

Philippines and a large part of
Indonesia

Indonesia were excluded by
SEAC while
Ceylon

Ceylon was included. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly
standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it
encompasses had emerged.[12] Although from a cultural or linguistic
perspective, the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most
common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the
countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below.
Ten of eleven states of Southeast
Asia

Asia are members of the Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while
East Timor

East Timor is an observer
state. Papua
New Guinea

New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is
currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories
in the South
China

China Sea.
Hong Kong, Macau, and
Taiwan

Taiwan (a disputed region or nation), are also
considered as part of the Southeast Asia.[13][14][15][16][17]
Political divisions[edit]
Sovereign states[edit]
State
Area
(km2)[2]
Population
(2016)[1]
Density
(/km2)
GDP (nominal),
USD (2016)[2]
GDP (PPP)
per capita,
Int$ (2016)[2]
HDI (2016)[18]:22–24
Capital
Brunei

Brunei Darussalam
5,765
423,196
78
10,458,000,000
$76,884
0.865
Bandar Seri Begawan
Cambodia
181,035
15,762,370
85
19,368,000,000
$3,737
0.563
Phnom Penh
East Timor
14,874
1,268,671
75
2,501,000,000
$4,187
0.605
Dili
Indonesia
1,904,569
261,115,456
132
940,953,000,000
$11,720
0.689
Jakarta
Laos
236,800
6,758,353
30
13,761,000,000
$5,710
0.586
Vientiane
Malaysia
329,847
31,187,265
91
302,748,000,000
$27,267
0.789
Kuala Lumpur

Kuala Lumpur *
Myanmar
676,000
52,885,223
98
68,277,000,000
$5,832
0.556
Nay Pyi Daw
Philippines
343,448
103,320,222
294
311,687,000,000
$7,728
0.682
Manila
Singapore
724
5,622,455
7,671
296,642,000,000
$90,151
0.925
Singapore

Singapore (city-state)
Thailand
513,120
68,863,514
127
390,592,000,000
$16,888
0.740
Bangkok
Vietnam
331,210
94,569,072
279
200,493,000,000
$6,429
0.683
Hanoi
* Administrative centre in Putrajaya.
Dependent territories[edit]
UNSD statistical division for
Asia

Asia based on statistic convenience
rather than implying any assumption regarding political or other
affiliation of countries or territories:[19]
North Asia
Central Asia
Western Asia
South Asia
East Asia
Southeast Asia
Territory
Area (km2)
Population
Density (/km2)
Capital
Christmas Island
135[20]
1,402[20]
10.4
Flying Fish Cove
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
14[21]
596[21]
42.6
West Island (Pulau Panjang)
Administrative subdivisions[edit]
Territory
Area (km2)
Population
Density (/km2)
Capital
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
8,251
379,944[22]
46
Port Blair
Geographical divisions[edit]
Southeast
Asia

Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely
Mainland Southeast
Asia

Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast
Asia

Asia (or
the similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (Javanese: Nusantara).
Mainland Southeast
Asia

Asia includes:
Cambodia
Laos
Myanmar

Myanmar (Burma)
Peninsular Malaysia
Thailand
Vietnam
Maritime Southeast
Asia

Asia includes:
Indonesia
Philippines
East Malaysia
Brunei
Singapore
East Timor
The
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Andaman and Nicobar Islands of
India

India are geographically considered
part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern
Bangladesh

Bangladesh and Northeast
India

India have strong cultural ties with Southeast
Asia

Asia and sometimes
considered both
South Asian
.svg/400px-South_Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
South Asian and Southeast Asian.[23]
Sri Lanka
.svg/440px-Sri_Lanka_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Sri Lanka has on
some occasions been considered a part of Southeast
Asia

Asia because of its
cultural ties to mainland Southeast Asia.[12][24] The rest of the
island of
New Guinea

New Guinea which is not part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New
Guinea, is sometimes included, and so are Palau, Guam, and the
Northern Mariana Islands, which were all part of the Spanish East
Indies

Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to the region.[25]
The eastern half of
Indonesia

Indonesia and
East Timor

East Timor (east of the Wallace
Line) are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania
(Wallacea) due to its distinctive faunal features.
New Guinea

New Guinea and its
surrounding islands are geologically considered as a part of
Australian continent, connected via the Sahul Shelf.
Andaman Sea
Arafura Sea
Bali

Bali Sea
Banda Sea
Ceram Sea
Flores

Flores Sea
Java

Java Sea
Molucca Sea
Savu Sea
South
China

China Sea
Timor

Timor Sea
Bohol Sea
Camotes Sea
Philippine Sea

Philippine Sea (Pacific Ocean)
Samar Sea
Sibuyan Sea
Sulu Sea
Visayan Sea
Celebes Sea
Bismarck Sea
Coral Sea
East
China

China Sea
Solomon Sea
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Tonkin
Bay of Bengal
Indian Ocean
Strait of Malacca
Makassar Strait
Gulf of Carpentaria
Karimata Strait
Luzon

Luzon Strait
Taiwan

Taiwan Strait
Gulf of Tomini
Sunda Strait
Moro Gulf
Oceans and Seas in Southeast Asia
History[edit]
Main article: History of Southeast Asia
Prehistory[edit]
A megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, Sumatra. 1500 CE
The region was already inhabited by
Homo erectus

Homo erectus from 1,000,000 years
ago during the
Middle Pleistocene age.[26]
Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens reached the
region by around 45,000 years ago,[27] having moved eastwards from the
Indian subcontinent.[28]
Homo floresiensis

Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up
until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct.[29] It has been
proposed that the
Austronesian

Austronesian people, who form the majority of the
modern population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor, and the
Philippines, may have migrated to Southeast
Asia

Asia from Taiwan. They
arrived in
Indonesia

Indonesia around 2000 BC, and as they spread through
the archipelago, they often settled along coastal areas and confined
indigenous peoples such as
Orang Asli

Orang Asli of peninsular Malaysia, Negritos
of the
Philippines

Philippines or
Papuans

Papuans of
New Guinea

New Guinea to inland regions.[30]
Archaeologists refer these people as Deutero-Malays, whom are more
advanced in farming techniques and metal knowledge than their
indigenous counterpart, the Proto-Malays.[31][32]
Studies presented by HUGO (Human Genome Organization) through genetic
studies of the various peoples of Asia, show empirically that there
was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people
travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay
peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the
Semang
_(14781589525).jpg/660px-Pagan_races_of_the_Malay_Peninsula_(1906)_(14781589525).jpg)
Semang who show
Negrito

Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of
these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people
diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the
populations of Southeast
Asia

Asia show greater genetic diversity than the
younger population of China.[33][32] Studies on the genetics of modern
Malays however show that there is a complex history of admixture of
human populations in Southeast Asia, with the Malay population showing
four major ancestral components: Austronesian, Proto-Malay, East
Asian, and South Asian.[34]
Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao (Nusantara)
maritime trading network ranging from
Vietnam

Vietnam to the rest of the
archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.[35] The
Bronze Age

Bronze Age Dong Son
culture flourished in Northern
Vietnam

Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its
influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia.[36][37][38] The region
entered the
Iron Age

Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in
northern
Vietnam

Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent
interactions with neighboring China.[26]
The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian
descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years, some reaching the
island of Madagascar, became the ancestors of modern-day Malagasy
people.[39] Passage through the
Indian Ocean

Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of
Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of
India

India and Chinese southern coast.[39] Gold from
Sumatra

Sumatra is thought to
have reached as far west as Rome.
Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural
History about Chryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold
and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the
vinta, were capable to sail across ocean.
Magellan's voyage

Magellan's voyage records
how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the
European ships.[40] A slave from the
Sulu Sea

Sulu Sea was believed to have
been used in
Magellan's voyage

Magellan's voyage as a translator.
Bronze drum from Sông Đà, northern Vietnam. Mid-1st millennium BC
Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist, engaged in
ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were
later supplanted by
Hinduism

Hinduism and
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism after the region, especially
coastal areas, came under contacts with
Indian subcontinent

Indian subcontinent during the
1st century.[41] Indian Brahmins and traders brought
Hinduism

Hinduism to the
region and made contacts with local courts.[42] Local rulers converted
to
Hinduism

Hinduism or
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to
reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow
chief counterparts and facilitate trade with
South Asian
.svg/400px-South_Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
South Asian states. They
periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a
gradual process of Indianisation in the region.[43][44][45] Shaivism
was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu
kingdoms during the 1st century. It then spread into Southeast Asia
via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to
thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of
Indonesia

Indonesia as well as
Cambodia

Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism in the region.[46][47]
Theravada

Theravada
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism entered the region during the 3rd century, via
maritime trade routes between the region and Sri Lanka.[48] Buddhism
later established a strong presence in
Funan

Funan region in the 5th
century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia,
Theravada

Theravada is still
the dominant branch of Buddhism, practiced by the Thai, Burmese and
Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced
Khmer culture.
Mahayana

Mahayana
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism established presence in Maritime
Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the
region en route to Nalanda.[43] It is still the dominant branch of
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism practiced by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists.
The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of
Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. Maluku
Islands and
New Guinea

New Guinea were never been Indianised and its native
people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam
began to spread in those areas.[49] While in Vietnam,
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism never
managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese
influence.[50] In present-day Southeast Asia,
Vietnam

Vietnam is the only
country where its folk religion makes up the plurality.[51][52]
Recently,
Vietnamese folk religion
.jpg/300px-Orchestre_de_musique_traditionnelle_(Hanoi).jpg)
Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the
support of the government.[53] Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in
Southeast
Asia

Asia that resist conversion and still retain their original
animist beliefs, such as the
Dayaks

Dayaks in Kalimantan, the Igorots in
Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar.[54]
Hindu

Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era[edit]
Main articles: Greater
India

India and History of Indian influence on
Southeast Asia
Borobudur

Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia
After the region came under contacts with
Indian subcontinent

Indian subcontinent circa
400 BCE, it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian
ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures and political
administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and
adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were
invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming
local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and
indigenous traditions.[55][44][45]
Sanskrit

Sanskrit and
Pali

Pali became the elite
language of the region, which effectively made Southeast
Asia

Asia part of
the Indosphere.[56] Most of the region had been Indianised during the
first centuries, while the
Philippines

Philippines later Indianised circa 9th
century when
Kingdom of Tondo

Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon.[57] Vietnam,
especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the
many periods of Chinese domination it experienced.[58]
The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were
the
Pyu city-states

Pyu city-states that already existed circa 2nd century BCE,
located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub
between
India

India and China.[59]
Theravada

Theravada
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism was the predominant
religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian
religions such as
Mahayana

Mahayana
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism and
Hinduism

Hinduism were also
widespread.[60][61] In the 1st century, the
Funan

Funan states centered in
Mekong Delta

Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia,
southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant
trading power in mainland Southeast
Asia

Asia for about five centuries,
provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority
over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia.[62] In maritime
Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was
Salakanagara, established in western
Java

Java circa 2nd century CE. This
Hindu

Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver).[63]
Spread of
Hinduism

Hinduism and
Indian culture

Indian culture in Southeast Asia
By the 5th century CE, trade networking between East and West was
concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to
use new routes such as Malacca and
Sunda Strait

Sunda Strait due to the development
of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of
Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, and
Medang emerged.
Srivijaya

Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime
power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca
and Sunda Strait.[39] This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya
were invaded by
Chola

Chola Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian
subcontinent, in 1025.[64] The invasion reshaped power and trade in
the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the
Khmer Empire
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Cambodia_(pre-1863).svg.png)
Khmer Empire and Kahuripan.[65] Continued commercial contacts with the
Chinese Empire

Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures.
Many of the surviving examples of the
Hindu

Hindu cultural influence found
today throughout Southeast
Asia

Asia are the result of the Chola
expeditions.[66]
Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia
As
Srivijaya

Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The
Hindu

Hindu Khmer Empire
experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The
empire's capital
Angkor

Angkor hosts majestic monuments—such as
Angkor

Angkor Wat
and Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its
peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.[67]
The
Champa

Champa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam,
and was a highly Indianised
Hindu

Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a
massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese
invasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering
thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into
Vietnamese culture.[68]
During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions,
affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java. In
1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols try to invade
Đại Việt
.jpg/440px-Temple_commémoratif_au_roi_Dinh_Tien_Hoang_(Hoa_Lu).jpg)
Đại Việt and
Champa.[69] The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and
Champa

Champa agreed to become tributary states to
Yuan dynasty

Yuan dynasty to avoid
further conflicts.[70] The Mongols also invaded
Pagan Kingdom in Burma
from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise
of smaller
Shan States

Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted
to Yuan dynasty.[71][72] However, in 1297, a new local power emerged.
Myinsaing Kingdom

Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and
challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol
invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing.[73][74]
The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma.[75] In 1292, The
Mongols sent envoys to
Singhasari

Singhasari Kingdom in
Java

Java to ask for
submission to Mongol rule.
Singhasari

Singhasari rejected the proposal and
injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large
invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them,
Singhasari

Singhasari collapsed in
1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols
arrived in Java, a local prince named
Raden Wijaya

Raden Wijaya offered his service
to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated,
Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and
forced them to immediately leave Java.[76][77]
After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit
Empire in eastern
Java

Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grew into a
regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from
1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the
southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and
Bali

Bali came under its
influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention
that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some
areas of western
New Guinea

New Guinea and southern Philippines, making it one of
the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.[78](p107)
By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane
due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new
Islamic states such as
Samudera Pasai

Samudera Pasai and
Malacca Sultanate

Malacca Sultanate around the
strategic Strait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It
was the last major
Hindu

Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the
region before the arrival of the Europeans.[79][80]
Spread of Islam[edit]
Main articles: Spread of
Islam

Islam in Southeast
Asia

Asia and
Islam

Islam in
Southeast Asia
Kampung Laut Mosque

Kampung Laut Mosque in Tumpat is one of the oldest mosques in
Malaysia, dating to the early 18th century.
Islam

Islam began to made contacts with Southeast
Asia

Asia in the 8th-century
CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea
routes.[81][82][83] However its spread into the region happened
centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in
the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian
Chola

Chola navy crossed
the ocean and attacked the
Srivijaya

Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful
maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with
Kadaram, Pannai in present-day
Sumatra

Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan
peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of
Kedah

Kedah Phra
Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu
faith, and converted to
Islam

Islam with the
Sultanate of Kedah
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Kedah_(18th_century_-_1912).svg.png)
Sultanate of Kedah established
in 1136.
Samudera Pasai

Samudera Pasai converted to
Islam

Islam in 1267, the King of
Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became
the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of
Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit.
Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar
Hamka
,_Pekan_Buku_Indonesia_1954,_p96.jpg)
Hamka (1908–1981)
wrote in 1961: "The development of
Islam

Islam in
Indonesia

Indonesia and Malaya is
intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[84]
Children studying
Qur'an

Qur'an in Java, Indonesia, during colonial period
There are several theories to the
Islamisation

Islamisation process in Southeast
Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia,
India

India and Southeast
Asia

Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim
traders from Southern Yemen (Hadramout) brought
Islam

Islam to the region
with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia,
Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in the Arab-Indonesian,
Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very
prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes
embraced
Islam

Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion
throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port,
Malacca Sultanate, embraced
Islam

Islam in the 15th century, heralding a
period of accelerated conversion of
Islam

Islam throughout the region as
Islam

Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes.
Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing
Islam

Islam in
Southeast Asia.[85]
Trade and foreign colonisation[edit]
Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The
consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence and in some
cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each
country until today.[86]
China[edit]
See also: List of tributaries of Imperial
China

China and Chinese Empire
Strait of Malacca

Strait of Malacca (narrows)
From 111 BC to 938 AD northern
Vietnam

Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam
was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including
the Han, Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi,
Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han.
Records from
Magellan's voyage

Magellan's voyage show that
Brunei

Brunei possessed more cannon
than the European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with
them.[40]
Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess,
Hang Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur
Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han
Li Po's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as
is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled.
The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by
Sultanate of Malacca

Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go
unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote "He
who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice".
Europe[edit]
See also: European colonisation of Southeast Asia
Fort Cornwallis

Fort Cornwallis in George Town marks the spot where the British East
India

India Company first landed in
Penang
.svg/240px-Flag_of_Penang_(Malaysia).svg.png)
Penang in 1786, thus heralding the
British colonisation of Malaya.
Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the
arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the
latter being settled by the Spanish years later. Throughout the 17th
and 18th centuries the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the
French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th
century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for
Thailand.
Duit, a coin minted by the VOC, 1646–1667. 2 kas, 2 duit.
European explorers were reaching Southeast
Asia

Asia from the west and from
the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian
Ocean

Ocean and south from mainland
Asia

Asia provided goods in return for
natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of
the archipelago. Before the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the
Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the
majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively
little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and
relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence level
agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilizations, hunting and
gathering was still hard.[87]
Europeans brought
Christianity

Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to
become widespread.
Thailand

Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter
its country to develop its own education system as well as start
sending Royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from
Europe
.svg/400px-Europe-Ukraine_(disputed_territory).svg.png)
Europe and Russia.
Japan[edit]
See also: Greater East
Asia

Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, Empire of Japan, and
Japanese war crimes
During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western
colonies. The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions
against civilians such as the
Manila

Manila massacre and the implementation
of a system of forced labour, such as the one involving 4 to 10
million romusha in Indonesia.[88] A later UN report stated that four
million people died in
Indonesia

Indonesia as a result of famine and forced
labour during the Japanese occupation.[89] The Allied powers who
defeated Japan in the South-East Asian theatre of
World War II

World War II then
contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had
granted independence.
India[edit]
Gujarat,
India

India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast
Asia

Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries.[85] The trade relationship with
Gujarat

Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast
Asia

Asia in
the 17th century.[85]
Contemporary history[edit]
See also: Japanese foreign policy on Southeast Asia
Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms
of government and the recognition of human rights are taking root.
ASEAN

ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce, and
regional responses to international concerns.
China

China has asserted broad claims over the South
China

China Sea, based on its
Nine-Dash Line, and has built artificial islands in an attempt to
bolster its claims.
China

China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone
based on the Spratly Islands. The
Philippines

Philippines challenged
China

China in the
Permanent Court of Arbitration

Permanent Court of Arbitration in
The Hague

The Hague in 2013, and in
Philippines

Philippines v.
China

China (2016), the Court ruled in favor of the
Philippines

Philippines and rejected China's claims.[90][91]
Geography[edit]
See also: Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia), List of Southeast Asian
mountains, and Zomia (geography)
Relief map of Southeast Asia.
Indonesia

Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast
Asia

Asia and it also the
largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World
Factbook). Geologically, the
Indonesian Archipelago

Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most
volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the
region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in
Puncak Jaya

Puncak Jaya in Papua,
Indonesia

Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,500 feet), on the
island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be
found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast
Asia

Asia is
Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 meters and can be found in northern Burma
sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest.
The South
China

China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia.
The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore,
have integral rivers that flow into the South
China

China Sea.
Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of
the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous
eruption.[92]
Boundaries[edit]
See also: Austronesia
Southeast
Asia

Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian
continent, a boundary which runs through Indonesia. But a cultural
touch point lies between Papua
New Guinea

New Guinea and the Indonesian region of
the Papua and West Papua, which shares the island of
New Guinea

New Guinea with
Papua New Guinea.
Climate[edit]
Southeast
Asia

Asia map of Köppen climate classification.
The climate in Southeast
Asia

Asia is mainly tropical–hot and humid all
year round with plentiful rainfall. Northern
Vietnam

Vietnam and the Myanmar
Himalayas

Himalayas are the only regions in Southeast
Asia

Asia that feature a
subtropical climate, which has a cold winter with snow. The majority
of Southeast
Asia

Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shift in
winds or monsoon. The tropical rain belt causes additional rainfall
during the monsoon season. The rain forest is the second largest on
earth (with the Amazon being the largest). An exception to this type
of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern
region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier
landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are
desert like. Climate change will have a big effect on agriculture in
Southeast
Asia

Asia such as irrigation systems will be affected by changes
in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality and
supply.[93]
Environment[edit]
See also:
Southeast Asian coral reefs

Southeast Asian coral reefs and Wallace line
Komodo dragon

Komodo dragon in Komodo National Park, Indonesia
The vast majority of Southeast
Asia

Asia falls within the warm, humid
tropics, and its climate generally can be characterised as monsoonal.
The animals of Southeast
Asia

Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo
and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, the
Sumatran rhinoceros

Sumatran rhinoceros and the
Bornean clouded leopard

Bornean clouded leopard can also be found.
Six subspecies of the binturong or bearcat exist in the region, though
the one endemic to the island of
Palawan

Palawan is now classed as vulnerable.
Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of
Sumatra

Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsular
Malaysia

Malaysia (the Malayan
tiger), and in
Indochina

Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are
endangered species.
The
Komodo dragon

Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits
the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and
Gili Motang in Indonesia.
The Philippine eagle
The
Philippine eagle

Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines. It is
considered by scientists as the largest eagle in the world,[94] and is
endemic to the Philippines' forests.
The wild Asian water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf
species of
Bubalus

Bubalus such as anoa were once widespread in Southeast
Asia; nowadays the domestic Asian water buffalo is common across the
region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered.
The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat,
mostly can be found on Sumatra,
Borneo

Borneo (Indonesia) and in Palawan
Islands (Philippines). The gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even
wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little
scientific information available regarding Southeast Asian
amphibians.[95]
Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far
east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four-tusked pig, can be found in
Indonesia

Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used in
trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull,
was prized in
China

China as well.
The
Indonesian Archipelago

Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line
runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and
separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species.
The islands between Java/
Borneo

Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where
both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development
accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia,
concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the
region's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia,
however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to
wildlife. The nations of the region, with only few exceptions, have
become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent
soil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna.
Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national
parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the
Javan rhinoceros

Javan rhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the animals
remaining in western Java.
Wallace's hypothetical line divide
Indonesian Archipelago

Indonesian Archipelago into 2 types
of fauna, Australasian and Southeast Asian fauna. The deep water of
the
Lombok Strait

Lombok Strait between the islands of
Bali

Bali and
Lombok

Lombok formed a
water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated
islands and landmasses on either side.
The shallow waters of the
Southeast Asian coral reefs

Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest
levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral,
fish and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International,
marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja
Ampat (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is
considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle
composed of Indonesia, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral
Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, the
Verde Passage is dubbed by Conservation International as the world's
"center of the center of marine shorefish biodiversity". The whale
shark, the world's largest species of fish and 6 species of sea
turtles can also be found in the South
China

China Sea and the Pacific Ocean
territories of the Philippines.
The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some
countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate
vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being
logged-over, especially in Borneo.
While Southeast
Asia

Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast
Asia

Asia is
facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for various
endangered species such as orangutan and the Sumatran tiger.
Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant
species in Southeast
Asia

Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[96]
At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst
regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple countries were
covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities
in
Sumatra

Sumatra and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast
Asia

Asia signed the
ASEAN

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary
Haze

Haze Pollution to
combat haze pollution.
The 2013 Southeast Asian
Haze

Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level
in some countries. Muar experienced the highest API level of 746 on 23
June 2013 at around 7 am.[97]
Economy[edit]
See also: Bamboo network
The Port of
Singapore

Singapore is the busiest transshipment and container port
in the world, and is an important transportation and shipping hub in
Southeast Asia.
Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia
was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of
commodities originated in the region, but especially important were
spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade
initially was developed by Indian and
Arab

Arab merchants, but it also
brought Europeans to the region. First Spaniards (
Manila

Manila galleon) and
Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became
involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of
European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of
territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect
and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into
Indonesia, the British into Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French
into Indochina, and the Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An
economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the production of
commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java,
Vietnam

Vietnam and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the
Mekong Delta

Mekong Delta in
Vietnam

Vietnam and Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a
response to powerful market demands.[98]
The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the
development of the economies in the region. These business communities
are connected through the bamboo network, a network of overseas
Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast
Asia

Asia that
share common family and cultural ties.[99] The origins of Chinese
influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese migrants
from southern
China

China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other
Southeast Asian countries.[100] Chinese populations in the region saw
a rapid increase following the
Communist Revolution

Communist Revolution in 1949, which
forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China.[99]
The region's economy greatly depends on agriculture; rice and rubber
have long been prominent exports. Manufacturing and services are
becoming more important. An emerging market,
Indonesia

Indonesia is the largest
economy in this region.
Newly industrialised countries

Newly industrialised countries include
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines, while Singapore
and
Brunei

Brunei are affluent developed economies. The rest of Southeast
Asia

Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture, but
Vietnam

Vietnam is notably
making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors. The
region notably manufactures textiles, electronic high-tech goods such
as microprocessors and heavy industrial products such as automobiles.
Oil reserves in Southeast
Asia

Asia are plentiful.
Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build the
Asia-America Gateway submarine cable to connect Southeast
Asia

Asia to the
US[101] This is to avoid disruption of the kind recently caused by the
cutting of the undersea cable from
Taiwan

Taiwan to the US in the 2006
Hengchun earthquakes.
Along with its temples
Cambodia

Cambodia has been promoting its coastal
resorts.Island off Otres Beach Sihanoukville, Cambodia.
Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many
Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO,
"tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a tremendous development tool
and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our
planet."[102] Since the early 1990s, "even the non-
ASEAN

ASEAN nations such
as Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam

Vietnam and Burma, where the income derived from
tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism
industries."[103] In 1995,
Singapore

Singapore was the regional leader in
tourism receipts relative to GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those receipts
had dropped to less than 6% of GDP while
Thailand

Thailand and Lao PDR
increased receipts to over 7%. Since 2000,
Cambodia

Cambodia has surpassed all
other
ASEAN

ASEAN countries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from tourism
in 2006.[104]
Indonesia

Indonesia is the only member of
G-20 major economies

G-20 major economies and is the
largest economy in the region.[105] Indonesia's estimated gross
domestic product for 2016 was US$932.4 billion (nominal) or $3,031.3
billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of US$3,604 (nominal) or $11,717
(PPP).[106]
Stock markets in Southeast
Asia

Asia have performed better than other
bourses in the
Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific region in 2010, with the Philippines' PSE
leading the way with 22 percent growth, followed by Thailand's SET
with 21 percent and Indonesia's JKSE with 19 percent.[107][108]
Southeast Asia's GDP per capita is US$3,853 according to a 2015 United
Nations report, which is comparable to Guatemala and Tonga.[109]
Country
Currency
Population
(2017)[110]
Nominal GDP
(2017)[111]
GDP per capita
(2017)[112]
GDP growth
(2017)[113]
Inflation
(2017)[114]
Main industries
Brunei
B$
Brunei

Brunei dollar
443,593
$11.96 billion
$27,890
-1.3%
-0.2%
Petroleum, Petrochemicals, Fishing
Cambodia
៛ Riel
16,204,486
$22.25 billion
$1,390
6.9%
3.7%
Clothing, Gold, Agriculture
East Timor
US$ US dollar
1,291,358
$2.72 billion
$2,190
4%
1%
Petroleum, Coffee, Electronics
Indonesia
Rp Rupiah
260,580,739
$1,010.00 billion
$3,860
5.2%
4%
Coal, Petroleum, Palm oil
Laos
₭ Kip
7,126,706
$17.15 billion
$2,570
6.9%
2.3%
Copper, Electronics, Tin
Malaysia
RM Ringgit
31,381,992
$309.86 billion
$9,660
5.4%
3.8%
Electronics, Petroleum, Palm oil
Myanmar
K Kyat
55,123,814
$66.97 billion
$1,270
7.2%
6.5%
Natural gas, Agriculture, Clothing
Philippines
₱ Peso
104,256,076
$389.482 billion
$3,593
6.6%
3.1%
Electronics, Timber, Automotive
Singapore
S$
Singapore

Singapore dollar
5,888,926
$305.76 billion
$53,880
2.5%
0.9%
Electronics, Petroleum, Chemicals
Thailand
฿ Baht
68,414,135
$437.81 billion
$6,340
3.7%
0.6%
Electronics, Automotive, Rubber
Vietnam
₫ Đồng
96,160,163
$215.96 billion
$2,310
6.3%
4.4%
Electronics, Clothing, Agriculture
Demographics[edit]
A pie chart showing the population distribution of the countries of
Southeast
Asia

Asia (with
Indonesia

Indonesia split into its major islands).
Southeast
Asia

Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 km2
(1.7 million square miles). As of 2016, around 642 million people
live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the
Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in
the world.
Indonesia

Indonesia is the most populous country with 261 million
people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The
distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia
and varies by country. Some 30 million overseas Chinese also live
in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as the
Hoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as
Southeast Asians or Aseanites.
Ethnic groups[edit]
Main article: Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia
Ati woman in Aklan – the
Negritos

Negritos were the earliest inhabitants
of Southeast Asia
The Aslians and
Negritos

Negritos were believed as one of the earliest
inhabitant in the region. They are genetically related to the
Australoid
Papuans

Papuans in Eastern
Indonesia

Indonesia and Australian Aborigines. The
next waves of human migration to Southeast
Asia

Asia were Austroasiatic and
Austronesians, which today forming the majority of the regional
population.
In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in
Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated
in Java, Indonesia. The second largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia
is Vietnamese with around 86 million population, mainly inhabit
Vietnam

Vietnam forming significant minority in neighboring
Cambodia

Cambodia and Laos.
The Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million
population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese
account for more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country.
A
Native Indonesian
.jpg/440px-Bali_–_The_People_(2685069056).jpg)
Native Indonesian Balinese girl wearing kebaya during a traditional
ceremony.
Indonesia

Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic
groups, with hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago,
including Madurese, Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and
Malays. While
Malaysia

Malaysia is split between more than half Malays and
one-quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in the West Malaysia
however
Dayaks

Dayaks is the most majority in
Sarawak

Sarawak and
Kadazan-dusun

Kadazan-dusun is
the most majority in
Sabah

Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays
are the majority in West
Malaysia

Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a
significant minority in Indonesia, Southern
Thailand

Thailand , East Malaysia
and Singapore. In city-state Singapore, Chinese are the majority, yet
the city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays, Indians and
Eurasian also called the island their home.
The
Chams

Chams forming a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam,
also in Central Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in
Cambodia, and forming a significant minority in Southern
Vietnam

Vietnam and
Thailand. The
Hmong people

Hmong people are the minority in Vietnam,
China

China and
Laos.
Within the Philippines, the Visayan (mainly Cebuanos and Hiligaynons),
Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicolano and Central
Luzon

Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and
Pangasinan) groups are significant.
Religion[edit]
See also:
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism in Southeast Asia,
Hinduism

Hinduism in Southeast Asia,
Islam

Islam in Southeast Asia, Shenism in Southeast Asia, Muslim Southeast
Asia, and
Christianity

Christianity in Asia
Thai
Theravada

Theravada
Buddhists
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhists in Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Buddhist monks collecting alms in Luang Prabang, north Laos.
The
Kek Lok Si

Kek Lok Si Buddhist Temple on
Penang
.svg/240px-Flag_of_Penang_(Malaysia).svg.png)
Penang Island combines Chinese, Thai
and Burmese architectural influences.
Roman Catholic

Roman Catholic Cathedral-Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, the
metropolitan see of the Archbishop of Manila, Philippines.
Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque in Brunei, an
Islamic country

Islamic country with
Sharia
.jpg/478px-End_Islamophobia,_Silent_Protest_at_Union_Station,_Washington_DC_(33348748371).jpg)
Sharia rule.
A
Protestant

Protestant church in Indonesia.
Indonesia

Indonesia has the largest Protestant
population in Southeast Asia.
The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Balinese
Hindu

Hindu temples.
Countries in Southeast
Asia

Asia practice many different religions. By
population,
Islam

Islam is the most practised faith, numbering approximately
240 million adherents, or about 40% of the entire population,
concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Southern
Thailand

Thailand and in
the Southern Philippines.
Indonesia

Indonesia is the most populous
Muslim-majority country around the world.
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Burma
and Singapore.
Ancestor worship

Ancestor worship and
Confucianism

Confucianism are also widely
practised in
Vietnam

Vietnam and Singapore.
Christianity

Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia,
East
Malaysia

Malaysia and East Timor. The
Philippines

Philippines has the largest Roman
Catholic population in Asia.
East Timor

East Timor is also predominantly Roman
Catholic due to a history of Portuguese rule.
No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. In
the world's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia,
Hinduism

Hinduism is
dominant on islands such as Bali.
Christianity

Christianity also predominates in
the rest of the part of the Philippines,
New Guinea

New Guinea and Timor. Pockets
of
Hindu

Hindu population can also be found around Southeast
Asia

Asia in
Singapore,
Malaysia

Malaysia etc.
Garuda

Garuda (Sanskrit: Garuḍa), the phoenix who
is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both
Thailand

Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of
Garuda

Garuda have
been found on Palawan; gold images of other
Hindu

Hindu gods and goddesses
have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese
Hinduism

Hinduism is somewhat
different from
Hinduism

Hinduism practised elsewhere, as
Animism

Animism and local
culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found
throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in
East Timor

East Timor and
the Philippines, Asia's largest Christian nation. In addition, there
are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas of Sarawak
in East Malaysia, Highland
Philippines

Philippines and Papua in eastern Indonesia.
In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism is practised, which is influenced by native animism but with
strong emphasis on ancestor worship.
The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values
are taken from the CIA World Factbook:[115]
Country
Religions
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Hinduism

Hinduism (69%), Christianity, Islam, Sikhism and others
Brunei
Islam

Islam (67%), Buddhism, Christianity, others (indigenous beliefs, etc.)
Burma
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (89%), Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism, others
Cambodia
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (97%), Islam, Christianity, Animism, others
Christmas Island
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (75%), Islam, Christianity
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Islam

Islam (80%), others
East Timor
Roman Catholicism (97%), Protestantism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism
Indonesia
Islam

Islam (87.18%), Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, others[116]
Laos
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (67%), Animism, Christianity, others
Malaysia
Islam

Islam (60.4%), Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Animism
Philippines
Roman Catholicism (80%),
Islam

Islam (11%),[117] Iglesia ni Cristo (Church
of Christ) (3%),
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (2%),[118]
Animism

Animism (1.25%), others (0.35%)
Singapore
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Hinduism, others
Thailand
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (93.83%),
Islam

Islam (4.56%),
Christianity

Christianity (0.8%), Hinduism
(0.011%), others (0.079%)
Vietnam
Vietnamese folk religion
.jpg/300px-Orchestre_de_musique_traditionnelle_(Hanoi).jpg)
Vietnamese folk religion (45.3%),
Buddhism
.jpeg/476px-Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg)
Buddhism (16.4%), Christianity
(8.2%), Other (0.4%), Unaffiliated (29.6%)[119]
Languages[edit]
See also: Classification schemes for Southeast Asian languages,
Sino-Tibetan languages, Austroasiatic languages, Austronesian
languages, Hmong–Mien languages, and Tai–Kadai languages
Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due
to trade, immigration, and historical colonization as well. There are
nearly over 800 native languages in the region.
The language composition for each country is as follows (with official
languages in bold):
Country
Languages
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Bengali, Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Shompen,
A-Pucikwar, Aka-Jeru, Aka-Bea, Aka-Bo, Aka-Cari, Aka-Kede, Aka-Kol,
Aka-Kora, Aka-Bale, Jangil, Jarawa, Oko-Juwoi, Önge, Sentinelese,
Camorta, Car, Chaura, Katchal, Nancowry, Southern Nicobarese, Teressa
Brunei
Malay, English, Indonesian, Chinese, Tamil and indigenous Bornean
dialects (Iban, Murutic language, Lun Bawang,)[120]
Burma
Burmese, English, Shan, Kayin(Karen), Rakhine, Kachin, Chin, Mon,
Kayah, Chinese and other ethnic languages.[121]
Cambodia
Khmer, Thai, English, French, Vietnamese, Cham, Chinese, others[122]
Christmas Island
English, Chinese, Malay[123]
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
English, Cocos Malay[124]
East Timor
Tetum, Portuguese, Indonesian, English, Mambae, Makasae, Tukudede,
Bunak, Galoli, Kemak, Fataluku, Baikeno, others[125]
Indonesia
Indonesian, Javanese, Dutch, Sundanese, Batak, Minangkabau, Buginese,
Banjar, Papuan, Dayak, Acehnese, Ambonese Balinese, Betawi, Madurese,
Musi, Manado, Sasak, Makassarese, Batak Dairi, Karo, Mandailing, Jambi
Malay, Mongondow, Gorontalo, Ngaju, Nias, North Moluccan, Uab Meto,
Bima, Manggarai, Toraja-Sa'dan, Komering, Tetum, Rejang, Muna,
Sumbawa, Bangka Malay, Osing, Gayo, Bungku-Tolaki languages, Moronene,
Bungku, Bahonsuai, Kulisusu, Wawonii, Mori Bawah, Mori Atas, Padoe,
Tomadino, Lewotobi, Tae', Mongondow, Lampung, Tolaki, Ma'anyan,
Simeulue, Gayo, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasan, Enggano, Ternate, Tidore,
Mairasi, East Cenderawasih Language, Lakes Plain Languages,
Tor-Kwerba, Nimboran, Skou/Sko, Border languages, Senagi, Pauwasi,
Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew, Tamil, Punjabi, Bengali,
and Arabic.
Indonesia

Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the
archipelago, making
Indonesia

Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse
country on the planet,[126] slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The
official language of
Indonesia

Indonesia is Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia),
widely used in educational, political, economic, and other formal
situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most
Indonesians speak in their local language(s). For more details, see:
Languages of Indonesia.
Laos
Lao, Thai, Vietnamese, Hmong, Miao, Mien, Dao, Shan, French, English
and others[127]
Malaysia
Malaysian, English, Indonesian, Mandarin, Tamil,
Kedah

Kedah Malay, Sabah
Malay,
Brunei

Brunei Malay, Kelantan Malay, Pahang Malay, Acehnese, Javanese,
Minangkabau, Banjar, Buginese, Hakka, Cantonese, Hokkien, Teochew,
Fuzhounese, Telugu, Bengali, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhalese, Malayalam,
Arabic,
Brunei

Brunei Bisaya, Okolod, Kota Marudu Talantang, Kelabit, Lotud,
Terengganu Malay, Semelai, Thai, Iban, Kadazan, Dusun, Kristang,
Bajau, Jakun, Mah Meri, Batek, Melanau, Semai, Temuan, Lun Bawang,
Temiar, Penan, Tausug, Iranun, Lundayeh/Lun Bawang and others,[128]
see: Languages of Malaysia
Philippines
Filipino, English, Tagalog, Spanish, Visayan (Aklanon, Cebuano,
Kinaray-a, Capiznon, Hiligaynon, Waray, Masbateño, Romblomanon,
Cuyonon, Surigaonon, Butuanon, Tausug) Ivatan, Ilocano, Ibanag,
Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bicolano, Sama-Bajaw, Maguindanao, Maranao,
Chavacano
The
Philippines

Philippines has more than a hundred native languages, most without
official recognition from the national government. Spanish and Arabic
are on a voluntary and optional basis. Malaysian, Indonesian,
Mandarin,
Lan-nang

Lan-nang (Hokkien), Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese and Korean
are also spoken in the
Philippines

Philippines due to immigration, geographic
proximity and historical ties. See: Languages of the Philippines
Singapore
English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, Tamil, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese,
Hakka, Telugu, Malayalam, Punjabi, Hindi, Sinhalese, Indonesian,
Javanese, Balinese,
Singlish
.jpg/600px-Quadrilingual_danger_sign_-_Singapore_(gabbe).jpg)
Singlish creole and others
Thailand
Thai, English, Teochew, Minnan, Hakka, Yuehai, Malay, Tamil, Bengali,
Urdu, Arabic, Lao, Northern Khmer, Isan, Shan, Lue, Phutai, Mon, Mein,
Hmong, Karen, Burmese and others[129]
Vietnam
Vietnamese, English, Khmer, French, Cantonese, Hmong, Tai, Cham and
others[130]
Cities[edit]
See also: List of cities in
ASEAN

ASEAN by population
Skylines of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Jabodetabek

Jabodetabek (Jakarta/West Java/Banten), Indonesia. Jabodetabek
is an abbreviation of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi,
which are the satellite cities of the
Special

Special Capital Region of
Jakarta.
Metro
Manila

Manila (Manila/Quezon City/Makati/Taguig/Pasay/
Caloocan

Caloocan and 11
others), Philippines
Bangkok

Bangkok Metropolitan Region (Bangkok/Nonthaburi/Samut Prakan/Pathum
Thani/Samut Sakhon/Nakhon Pathom), Thailand
Greater Kuala Lumpur/
Klang Valley

Klang Valley (Kuala Lumpur/Selangor),
Malaysia
Greater
Penang
.svg/240px-Flag_of_Penang_(Malaysia).svg.png)
Penang (Penang/Kedah/Perak), Malaysia
Ho Chi Minh City

Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area (Ho Chi Minh City/Vung Tau),
Vietnam
Yangon

Yangon Region (Yangon/Thanlyin), Myanmar
Hanoi

Hanoi Capital Region (Hanoi/Hai Phong/Ha Long), Vietnam
Gerbangkertosusila
(Surabaya/Sidoarjo/Gresik/Mojokerto/Lamongan/Bangkalan),
Indonesia
Bandung

Bandung Metropolitan Area (Bandung/Cimahi), Indonesia
Metro Cebu

Metro Cebu (Cebu City/Mandaue/Lapu-Lapu City/Talisay City and 11
others), Philippines
Metro Davao

Metro Davao (Davao City/Digos/Tagum/Island Garden City of Samal),
Philippines
Metro Iloilo-Guimaras

Metro Iloilo-Guimaras (Iloilo City/Pavia/Oton/Leganes/Zarraga/San
Miguel/Guimaras) , Philippines
Phnom Penh

Phnom Penh City (Phnom Penh/Kandal), Cambodia
Culture[edit]
See also: Southeast Asian cinema, Southeast Asian Games, and Southeast
Asian music
Burmese puppet performance
The culture in Southeast
Asia

Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast
Asia, the culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian and Thai
(Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the
Philippines,
Singapore

Singapore and
Malaysia

Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenous
Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also
Brunei

Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia.
Singapore

Singapore and Vietnam
show more Chinese influence[131] in that Singapore, although being
geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese
majority and
Vietnam

Vietnam was in China's sphere of influence for much of
its history. Indian influence in
Singapore

Singapore is only evident through the
Tamil migrants,[132] which influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of
Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history, it has had no direct
influence from
India

India – only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and
Cham peoples.
A paddy field in Vietnam.
Rice paddy

Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast
Asia

Asia for thousands of
years, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these
rice paddies populate the
Banaue Rice Terraces

Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of
Luzon

Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very
labour-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon
climate of the region.
Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from
Thailand

Thailand and
Vietnam, to Borneo, to
Luzon

Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea.
The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This
include weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical
instruments, such as the gamelan.
Influences[edit]
The region's chief cultural influences have been from some combination
of Islam, India, and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced
in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of the
Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian-influenced cultures,
and the Chinese and Japanese trading era.
As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely
influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of
China, where the peoples ate with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can
be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region
tend to vary.
Arts[edit]
The Royal Ballet of
Cambodia

Cambodia (Paris, France 2010)
The arts of Southeast
Asia

Asia have affinity with the arts of other areas.
Dance in much of Southeast
Asia

Asia includes movement of the hands as well
as the feet, to express the dance's emotion and meaning of the story
that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast
Asia

Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal
ballet represented them in the early 7th century before the Khmer
Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance,
famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu
symbolic dance.
Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment
in past centuries, a famous one being
Wayang

Wayang from Indonesia. The arts
and literature in some of Southeast
Asia

Asia is quite influenced by
Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite
conversion to
Islam

Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained
many forms of Hindu-influenced practices, culture, art and literature.
An example is the
Wayang

Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the
Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized by
UNESCO

UNESCO on
November 7, 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity.
It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were
concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast
Asian mind the life of the gods was the life of the peoples
themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine. The Tai, coming late into
Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions,
but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and
the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were
in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in
their lacquerware.
Music[edit]
Main article: Music of Southeast Asia
Angklung

Angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Traditional music in Southeast
Asia

Asia is as varied as its many ethnic
and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen:
Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and
music influenced by genres outside the geographic region.
Of the court and folk genres, gong-chime ensembles and orchestras make
up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam).
Gamelan

Gamelan and
Angklung

Angklung orchestras from Indonesia,
Piphat
_(3771128467).jpg/440px-Lorchestre_thaïlandais_piphat_mon_(musée_de_la_musique)_(3771128467).jpg)
Piphat /Pinpeat
ensembles of
Thailand

Thailand and
Cambodia

Cambodia and the
Kulintang

Kulintang ensembles of the
southern Philippines, Borneo,
Sulawesi

Sulawesi and
Timor

Timor are the three main
distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other
traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are
popular in the region.
On November 18, 2010,
UNESCO

UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a
Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage
Indonesian people and government to safeguard, transmit, promote
performances and to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung making.
Writing[edit]
Main articles: Writing systems of Southeast Asia, Baybayin, Jawi
script, S.E.A. Write Award, and Thai alphabet
Thai manuscript from before the 19th century writing system.
The history of Southeast
Asia

Asia has led to a wealth of different
authors, from both within and without writing about the region.
Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants
about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present
in the region such as the
Balinese script

Balinese script shown on split palm leaf
called lontar (see image to the left — magnify the image to see the
writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the reverse side).
Sign in Balinese and
Latin script

Latin script at a
Hindu

Hindu temple in Bali
The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of
paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was
only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound
by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The
alphabets of Southeast
Asia

Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival
of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not
just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use
paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have
been more durable than paper in the tropical climate of Southeast
Asia.
In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now
generally written in the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present
in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are utilised
(e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and 'Taksi' in Indonesian for the word 'Taxi').
The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only
evident in
Vietnam

Vietnam and more recently,
Singapore

Singapore and Malaysia. The
adoption of Chinese characters in
Vietnam

Vietnam dates back to around 111BC,
when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chu
nom used modified Chinese characters to express the Vietnamese
language. Both classical Chinese and Chu Nom were used up until the
early 20th century.
However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially
in
Singapore

Singapore and
Malaysia

Malaysia as the younger generations are in favour of
the Latin Script.
See also[edit]
Southeast
Asia

Asia portal
List of Southeast Asian leaders
Northeast Asia
South Asia
Southeast
Asia

Asia Treaty Organization
Tiger Cub Economies
References[edit]
^ a b "World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision". ESA.UN.org
(custom data acquired via website). United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 10
September 2017.
^ a b c d e "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". World
Economic. IMF. Outlook Database, October 2016
^
ASEAN

ASEAN Community in Figures (ACIF) 2013 (PDF) (6th ed.). Jakarta:
ASEAN. Feb 2014. p. 1. ISBN 978-602-7643-73-4. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
^ Klaus Kästle (September 10, 2013). "Map of Southeast
Asia

Asia Region".
Nations Online Project. One World – Nations Online. Retrieved 10
September 2013. Nations Online is an online destination guide with
many aspects of the nations and cultures of the world: geography,
economy, science, people, culture, environment, travel and tourism,
government and history.
^ Chester, Roy. Furnace of Creation, Cradle of Destruction: A Journey
to the Birthplace of Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and Tsunamis. AMACOM.
ISBN 0814409202.
^ Zide; Baker, Norman H.; Milton E. (1966). Studies in comparative
Austroasiatic linguistics. Foreign Language Study.
^ "
ASEAN

ASEAN Member States". ASEAN.
^ Wallace, Alfred Russel (1869). The Malay Archipelago. London:
Macmillan and Co. p. 1.
^ Lach; Van Kley, Donald F.; Edwin J (1998).
Asia

Asia in the Making of
Europe, Volume III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 9780226467689.
^ Eliot; Bickersteth; Ballard, Joshua; Jane; Sebastian (1996).
Indonesia,
Malaysia

Malaysia &
Singapore

Singapore Handbook. New York City: Trade
& Trade & Travel Publications. CS1 maint: Multiple names:
authors list (link)
^ Park; King, Seung-Woo; Victor T. (2013). The Historical Construction
of Southeast Asian Studies: Korea and Beyond. Singapore: Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9789814414586.
^ a b Emmerson, Donald K (1984). ""Southeast Asia: What's in a
Name?"". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 15 (1): 11.
doi:10.1017/S0022463400012182. JSTOR 20070562. Retrieved December
9, 2017.
^ "香港是東南亞結腸腫瘤最高發區".
^
"【东南亚之王】是台湾?香港?澳门?新加坡?".
^ "The World Factbook".
^ "The World Factbook".
^ "The World Factbook".
^ Global 2016 Human Development Report Overview – English (PDF). New
York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2017.
pp. 22–24. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
^ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes
Classifications (M49)". United Nations Statistics Division. 6 May
2015. Retrieved 2010-07-24.
^ a b "Christmas Islands". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 12 September
2009.
^ a b "Cocos (Keeling) Islands". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 12
September 2009.
^ Population data as per the Indian Census.
^ Baruah, Sanjib (2005). Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics
of Northeast India. Oxford University Press.
^ Friborg, Bastian (2010). Southeast Asia: Myth or Reality pg 4.
^ Inoue, Yukiko (2005). Teaching with Educational Technology in the
21st Century: The Case of the
Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific Region: The Case of the
Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific Region. Idea Group Inc (IGI). p. 5.
ISBN 978-1-59140-725-6.
^ a b Bellwood, Peter (2017-04-10). First Islanders: Prehistory and
Human Migration in Island Southeast
Asia

Asia (1 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
ASIN 1119251540. ISBN 9781119251545. CS1 maint: ASIN
uses ISBN (link)
^ Demeter F, et al. (2012) Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia
(Laos) by 46 ka. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(36):14375–14380.
^ Smithsonian (July 2008). "The Great Human Migration": 2.
^ Morwood, M. J.; Brown, P.; Jatmiko; Sutikna, T.; Wahyu Saptomo, E.;
Westaway, K. E.; Rokus Awe Due; Roberts, R. G.; Maeda, T.; Wasisto,
S.; Djubiantono, T. (13 October 2005). "Further evidence for
small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia".
Nature. 437 (7061): 1012–1017. Bibcode:2005Natur.437.1012M.
doi:10.1038/nature04022. PMID 16229067.
^ Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New
Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 5–7.
ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
^ Murdock, George Peter (1969). Studies in the science of society.
Singapore: Books for Libraries Press. ISBN 9780836911572.
^ a b "Geneticist clarifies role of Proto-Malays in human origin".
Malaysiakini. 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2017-08-27.
^ "Genetic 'map' of Asia's diversity". BBC News. 11 December
2009.
^ Lian Deng, Boon-Peng Hoh, Dongsheng Lu, Woei-Yuh Saw, Rick Twee-Hee
Ong, Anuradhani Kasturiratne, H. Janaka de Silva, Bin Alwi Zilfalil,
Norihiro Kato, Ananda R. Wickremasinghe, Yik-Ying Teo & Shuhua Xu
(3 September 2015). "Dissecting the genetic structure and admixture of
four geographical Malay populations". Science Reports. 5: 14375.
Bibcode:2015NatSR...514375D. doi:10.1038/srep14375.
PMC 585825 . PMID 26395220. CS1 maint: Uses authors
parameter (link)
^ Solheim, Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2000, 2:1–2, pp.
273–284(12)
^
Vietnam

Vietnam Tours Archived 26 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Nola Cooke, Tana Li, James Anderson – The Tongking Gulf Through
History – Page 46 2011 -"Nishimura actually suggested the Đông
Sơn phase belonged in the late metal age, and some other Japanese
scholars argued that, contrary to the conventional belief that the Han
invasion ended Đông Sơn culture, Đông Sơn artifacts, ..."
^
Vietnam

Vietnam Fine Arts Museum 2000 "... the bronze cylindrical jars,
drums, Weapons and tools which were sophistically carved and belonged
to the World famous Đông Sơn culture dating from thousands of
years; the Sculptures in the round, the ornamental architectural
Sculptures ..."
^ a b c Hall, Kenneth R. (2011-01-16). A History of Early Southeast
Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500. Lanham:
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ASIN 0742567613.
ISBN 9780742567610. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
^ a b Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's
Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, HarperCollins Publishers,
2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0-06-621173-5
^ Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic
Indonesia

Indonesia and their
survival in Bali, in Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast
Asia, Religions, p. 1, at Google Books, pp. 1–54
^ Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia,
from
Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO.
ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
^ a b Hall, Kenneth R. (2010). A History of Early Southeast Asia:
Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500. Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6762-7.
^ a b Vanaik, Achin (1997). The Furies of Indian Communalism:
Religion, Modernity, and Secularization. Verso.
ISBN 978-1-85984-016-0.
^ a b Montgomery, Robert L. (2002). The Lopsided Spread of
Christianity: Toward an Understanding of the Diffusion of Religions.
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-97361-2.
^
Jan Gonda (1975). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast
Asia, Religions. BRILL Academic. pp. 3–20, 35–36, 49–51.
ISBN 90-04-04330-6.
^ Peter Bisschop (2011), Shaivism, Oxford University Press
^ Steadman, Sharon R. (2016). Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and
Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context. Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-315-43388-2.
^ Timme, Elke (2005). A Presença Portuguesa nas Ilhas das Moluccas
1511 – 1605. GRIN Verlag. p. 3.
ISBN 978-3-638-43208-5.
^ Church, Peter (2017). A Short History of South-East Asia. John Wiley
& Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-06249-3.
^ The Global Religious Landscape 2010. The Pew Forum.
^ "Global Religious Landscape". The Pew Forum. Retrieved 4 May
2014.
^ Roszko, Edyta (2012-03-01). "From Spiritual Homes to National
Shrines: Religious Traditions and Nation-Building in Vietnam". East
Asia. 29 (1): 25–41. doi:10.1007/s12140-011-9156-x.
ISSN 1096-6838.
^ Baldick, Julian (2013-06-15). Ancient Religions of the Austronesian
World: From
Australasia

Australasia to Taiwan. London: I.B.Tauris.
ASIN 1780763662. ISBN 9781780763668. CS1 maint: ASIN
uses ISBN (link)
^ Hall, Kenneth R. (2010). A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime
Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500. Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7425-6762-7.
^ Mahbubani, Kishore; Sng, Jeffery (2017). The
ASEAN

ASEAN Miracle: A
Catalyst for Peace. NUS Press. p. 19.
ISBN 978-981-4722-49-0.
^ Postma, Antoon (June 27, 2008). "The Laguna Copper-Plate
Inscription: Text and Commentary". Philippine Studies. Ateneo de
Manila

Manila University. 40 (2): 182–203.
^ Viet Nam social sciences 2002 Page 42 Ủy ban khoa học xã hội
Việt Nam – 2002 "The first period of cultural disruption and
transformation: in and around the first millennium CE (that is, the
period of Bac thuoc) all of Southeast
Asia

Asia shifted into strong
cultural exchanges with the outside world, on the one hand with
Chinese ..."
^ Malik, Preet (2015). My
Myanmar

Myanmar Years: A Diplomat’s Account of
India’s Relations with the Region. SAGE Publications. p. 28.
ISBN 978-93-5150-626-3.
^ Aung-Thwin 2005: 31–34
^ Htin Aung 1967: 15–17
^ Hall, Kenneth R. (2011-01-16). A History of Early Southeast Asia:
Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500. Lanham: Rowman
& Littlefield Publishers. ASIN 0742567613.
ISBN 9780742567610. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
^ Iguchi, Masatoshi (2017).
Java

Java Essay: The History and Culture of a
Southern Country. Troubador Publishing Ltd. p. 116.
ISBN 978-1-78462-885-7.
^
R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra
Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342, Artibus Asiae Publishers
^ Mukherjee, Rila (2011). Pelagic Passageways: The Northern Bay of
Bengal Before Colonialism. Primus Books. p. 76.
ISBN 978-93-80607-20-7.
^ The great temple complex at
Prambanan

Prambanan in
Indonesia

Indonesia exhibit a number
of similarities with the South Indian architecture. See Nilakanta
Sastri, K.A. The CōĻas, 1935 pp 709
^ Damian Evans; et al. (9 April 2009). "A comprehensive archaeological
map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor,
Cambodia". PNAS. 104 (36): 14277–82. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10414277E.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0702525104. PMC 1964867 . PMID 17717084.
Retrieved 22 November 2009.
^ Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and
Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. Yale University Press.
p. 110. ISBN 978-0-300-13793-4.
^ Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu
Duc. Greenwood Press. p. 85. ISBN 0-313-29622-7.
^ Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch,
Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2014). The
Earth

Earth and Its Peoples: A Global
History. Cengage Learning. p. 336.
ISBN 978-1-285-96570-3.
^ Hardiman, John Percy (1900). Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan
States. superintendent, Government printing, Burma.
^ Bernice Koehler Johnson (2009). The Shan: Refugees Without a Camp,
an English Teacher in
Thailand

Thailand and Burma. Trinity Matrix Publishing.
p. 11. ISBN 978-0-9817833-0-7.
^ Kohn, George Childs (2013). Dictionary of Wars. Taylor &
Francis. p. 446. ISBN 978-1-135-95501-4.
^ Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000
BC-1912 AD. iUniverse. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-595-22134-9.
^ Hardiman, John Percy (1900). Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan
States. superintendent, Government printing, Burma.
ISBN 9780231500043.
^ SarDesai, D. R. (2012). Southeast Asia: Past and Present. Avalon
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8133-4838-4.
^ Rao, B. V. History of Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
ISBN 978-81-207-9223-4.
^ John Miksic (1999). Ancient History. Indonesian Heritage Series. Vol
1. Archipelago Press / Editions Didier Millet.
ISBN 9789813018266.
^ Hipsher, Scott (2013). The Private Sector's Role in Poverty
Reduction in Asia. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-85709-449-0.
^ Federspiel, Howard M. (2007). Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam
and Muslims in Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN 978-0-8248-3052-6.
^ Hardt, Doug (2016). Who Was Muhammad?: An Analysis of the Prophet of
Islam

Islam in Light of the Bible and the Quran. TEACH Services, Inc.
ISBN 978-1-4796-0544-6.
^ Anderson, James (2013-03-21). Daily Life Through Trade: Buying and
Selling in World History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36325-2.
^ Ayoub, Mahmoud (2013). Islam: Faith and History. Oneworld
Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074-452-0.
^ Wang Ma, Rosey (2003). Chinese Muslims in Malaysia: History and
Development. Center for
Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific Area Studies, Academia
Sinica.
^ a b c Prabhune, Tushar (December 27, 2011). "
Gujarat

Gujarat helped
establish
Islam

Islam in SE Asia". Ahmedabad: The Times of India.
^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to
the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 282.
ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to
the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 286.
ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
^ Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia:
World War II

World War II and the Struggle
For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45"
Access date: 9 February 2007.
^
John W. Dower War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War
(1986; Pantheon; ISBN 0-394-75172-8)
^ Joseph Chinyong Liow, What does the South
China

China Sea ruling mean, and
what's next?, Brookings Institution (July 12, 2016).
^ Euan Graham,
The Hague

The Hague Tribunal's South
China

China Sea Ruling: Empty
Provocation or Slow-Burning Influence?, Lowy Institute for
International Policy (August 18, 2016).
^ Davis, Lee (1992). Natural disasters: from the Black Plague to the
eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. New York, NY: Facts on
File

File Inc.. pp.
300–301.
^ "Climate Change Impacts - South East Asia".
^ [1]
^ Navjot S. Sodhi; Barry W. Brook (2006). Southeast Asian Biodiversity
in Crisis. Cambridge University Press. p. 68.
ISBN 0-521-83930-0.
^
Biodiversity

Biodiversity wipeout facing Southeast Asia, New Scientist, 23 July
2003
^ 2013 Southeast Asian haze#Air Pollution Index readings
^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to
the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 287.
ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
^ a b Murray L Weidenbaum (1 January 1996). The Bamboo Network: How
Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic
Superpower in Asia. Martin Kessler Books, Free Press. pp. 4–8.
ISBN 978-0-684-82289-1.
^ Murray L Weidenbaum (1 January 1996). The Bamboo Network: How
Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic
Superpower in Asia. Martin Kessler Books, Free Press.
pp. 23–28. ISBN 978-0-684-82289-1.
^ Sean Yoong (27 April 2007). "17 Firms to Build $500M Undersea
Cable". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 27
September 2007. Retrieved 28 July 2007.
^ Background overview of The National Seminar on Sustainable Tourism
Resource Management Archived 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.,
Phnom Penh, 9–10 June 2003.
^ Hitchcock, Michael, et al. Tourism in South-East Asia. New York:
Routledge, 1993
^ WDI Online
^ What is the G-20 Archived 4 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.,
www.g20.org. Retrieved 6 October 2009.
^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Imf.org. 20 September
2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
^ "SE
Asia

Asia Stocks-Jakarta,
Manila

Manila hit record highs, others firm".
Reuters. 27 September 2010.
^ Bull Market Lifts PSE Index to Top Rank Among Stock Exchanges in
Asia

Asia
Manila

Manila Bulletin. Mb.com.ph (24 September 2010). Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ National Accounts Main Aggregates Database, 2015, (Select all
countries, "GDP, Per Capita GDP – US Dollars", and 2015 to generate
table), United Nations Statistics Division. Accessed on 5 July 2017.
^ "Country Comparison :: Population". CIA. July 2017. Retrieved 2
September 2017.
^ "World Economic Outlook (April 2017) – Nominal GDP". IMF.
Retrieved 2017-08-26.
^ "World Economic Outlook (April 2017) – Nominal GDP per capita".
IMF. Retrieved 2017-08-26.
^ "World Economic Outlook (April 2017) – Real GDP growth". IMF.
Retrieved 2017-08-26.
^ "World Economic Outlook (April 2017) –
Inflation

Inflation rate, average
consumer prices". IMF. Retrieved 2017-08-26.
^ "Field Listing – Religions". CIA Factbook. Retrieved 24 February
2007.
^
Indonesia

Indonesia – The World Factbook
^ http://www.ncmf.gov.ph/
^ BuddhaNet. "World Buddhist Directory – Presented by
BuddhaNet.Net". buddhanet.info.
^ "Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages". 18
December 2012.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Brunei. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ "Country:
Myanmar

Myanmar (Burma)". Joshua Project.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Cambodia. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Christmas Island. Cia.gov. Retrieved
on 17 October 2011.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Cia.gov.
Retrieved on 17 October 2011.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – East Timor. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ "Top 20 Countries by Number of Languages Spoken". www.vistawide.com.
Retrieved 2016-05-28.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Laos. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Malaysia. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Thailand. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ CIA –
The World Factbook

The World Factbook – Vietnam. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 17
October 2011.
^ http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147804eb.pdf
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21
October 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
Tiwari, Rajnish (2003): Post-crisis Exchange Rate Regimes in Southeast
Asia

Asia (PDF), Seminar Paper, University of Hamburg.
Rand, Nelson (2009). Conflict: Journeys through war and terror in
SouthEast Asia. Dunboyne: Maverick House Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-905379-54-5.
Further reading[edit]
Osborne, Milton (2010; first published in 1979). Southeast Asia: An
Introductory History Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-302-7
Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan (1996; first published in 1896).
Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Architectural
Press, 20th edition. ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Four, Chapter
27.
Farah, Paolo Davide (2015) Energy Investments and Environmental
Concerns in Southeast Asia, in: Paolo Davide FARAH & Piercarlo
ROSSI, ENERGY: POLICY, LEGAL AND SOCIAL-ECONOMIC ISSUES UNDER THE
DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY AND SECURITY, World Scientific Reference
on Globalisation in Eurasia and the Pacific Rim, Imperial College
Press (London, UK) & World Scientific Publishing, Nov. 2015.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutSoutheast Asiaat's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Data from Wikidata
Topography of Southeast
Asia

Asia in detail (PDF) (previous version)
Southeast Asian Archive at the University of California, Irvine at
Archive.is

Archive.is (archived 12 December 2012)
Southeast
Asia

Asia Digital Library at Northern Illinois University
"Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience", exhibit at the
University of California, Irvine, Library at
Archive.is

Archive.is (archived 25
February 2003)
Southeast
Asia

Asia Visions, a collection of historical travel narratives
Cornell University Library Digital Collection
Official website of the
ASEAN

ASEAN Tourism Association
Art of Island Southeast Asia, a full text exhibition catalogue from
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
v
t
e
Countries and other territories in Southeast Asia
Sovereign states
Brunei
Cambodia
East Timor
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Dependent territories or
Special

Special Administrative Regions
Christmas Island

Christmas Island (Australia)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
_Islands.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands.svg.png)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia)
Subdivisions
Paracel Islands

Paracel Islands (controlled by China)
Pratas Islands

Pratas Islands (controlled by Taiwan)
Spratly Islands

Spratly Islands (disputed among and controlled by various claimants)
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India)
v
t
e
Regions of the world
v
t
e
Regions of Africa
Central Africa
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Cape Lopez
Mayombe
Igboland
Mbaise
Maputaland
Pool Malebo
Congo Basin
Chad Basin
Congolese rainforests
Ouaddaï highlands
Ennedi Plateau
East Africa
African Great Lakes
Albertine Rift
East African Rift
Great Rift Valley
Gregory Rift
Rift Valley lakes
Swahili coast
Virunga Mountains
Zanj
Horn of Africa
Afar Triangle
Al-Habash
Barbara
Danakil Alps
Danakil Desert
Ethiopian Highlands
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Tadjoura
Indian Ocean

Indian Ocean islands
Comoros Islands
North Africa
Maghreb
Barbary Coast
Bashmur
Ancient Libya
Atlas Mountains
Nile Valley
Cataracts of the Nile
Darfur
Gulf of Aqaba
Lower Egypt
Lower Nubia
Middle Egypt
Nile Delta
Nuba Mountains
Nubia
The Sudans
Upper Egypt
Western Sahara
West Africa
Pepper Coast
Gold Coast
Slave Coast
Ivory Coast
Cape Palmas
Cape Mesurado
Guinea region
Gulf of Guinea
Niger Basin
Guinean Forests of West Africa
Niger Delta
Inner Niger Delta
Southern Africa
Madagascar
Central Highlands (Madagascar)
Northern Highlands
Rhodesia
North
South
Thembuland
Succulent Karoo
Nama Karoo
Bushveld
Highveld
Fynbos
Cape Floristic Region
Kalahari Desert
Okavango Delta
False Bay
Hydra Bay
Macro-regions
Aethiopia
Arab

Arab world
Commonwealth realm
East African montane forests
Eastern Desert
Equatorial Africa
Françafrique
Gibraltar Arc
Greater Middle East
Islands of Africa
List of countries where Arabic is an official language
Mediterranean Basin
MENA
MENASA
Middle East
Mittelafrika
Negroland
Northeast Africa
Portuguese-speaking African countries
Sahara
Sahel
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sudan (region)
Sudanian Savanna
Tibesti Mountains
Tropical Africa
v
t
e
Regions of Asia
Central
Greater Middle East
Aral Sea
Aralkum Desert
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Sea of Galilee
Transoxiana
Turan
Greater Khorasan
Ariana
Khwarezm
Sistan
Kazakhstania
Eurasian Steppe
Asian Steppe
Kazakh Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
Wild Fields
Yedisan
Muravsky Trail
Ural
Ural Mountains
Volga region
Idel-Ural
Kolyma
Transbaikal
Pryazovia
Bjarmaland
Kuban
Zalesye
Ingria
Novorossiya
Gornaya Shoriya
Tulgas
Iranian Plateau
Altai Mountains
Pamir Mountains
Tian Shan
Badakhshan
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Mount Imeon
Mongolian Plateau
Western Regions
Taklamakan Desert
Karakoram
Trans-
Karakoram

Karakoram Tract
Siachen Glacier
North
Inner Asia
Northeast
Far East
Russian Far East
Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
Extreme North
Siberia
Baikalia

Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
Transbaikal
Khatanga Gulf
Baraba steppe
Kamchatka Peninsula
Amur Basin
Yenisei Gulf
Yenisei Basin
Beringia
Sikhote-Alin
East
Japanese archipelago
Northeastern Japan Arc
Sakhalin Island Arc
Korean Peninsula
Gobi Desert
Taklamakan Desert
Greater Khingan
Mongolian Plateau
Inner Asia
Inner Mongolia
Outer Mongolia
China

China proper
Manchuria
Outer Manchuria
Inner Manchuria
Northeast
China

China Plain
Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
North
China

China Plain
Yan Mountains
Kunlun Mountains
Liaodong Peninsula
Himalayas
Tibetan Plateau
Tibet
Tarim Basin
Northern Silk Road
Hexi Corridor
Nanzhong
Lingnan
Liangguang
Jiangnan
Jianghuai
Guanzhong
Huizhou
Wu
Jiaozhou
Zhongyuan
Shaannan
Ordos Loop
Loess Plateau
Shaanbei
Hamgyong Mountains
Central Mountain Range
Japanese Alps
Suzuka Mountains
Leizhou Peninsula
Gulf of Tonkin
Yangtze River Delta
Pearl River Delta
Yenisei Basin
Altai Mountains
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
West
Greater Middle East
MENA
MENASA
Middle East
Red Sea
Caspian Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Zagros Mountains
Persian Gulf
Pirate Coast
Strait of Hormuz
Greater and Lesser Tunbs
Al-Faw Peninsula
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Aden
Balochistan
Arabian Peninsula
Najd
Hejaz
Tihamah
Eastern Arabia
South Arabia
Hadhramaut
Arabian Peninsula
.png/500px-Arabian_Peninsula_(orthographic_projection).png)
Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
Tigris–Euphrates
Mesopotamia
Upper Mesopotamia
Lower Mesopotamia
Sawad
Nineveh plains
Akkad (region)
Babylonia
Canaan
Aram
Eber-Nari
Suhum
Eastern Mediterranean
Mashriq
Kurdistan
Levant
Southern Levant
Transjordan
Jordan Rift Valley
Israel
Levantine Sea
Golan Heights
Hula Valley
Galilee
Gilead
Judea
Samaria
Arabah
Anti-Lebanon Mountains
Sinai Peninsula
Arabian Desert
Syrian Desert
Fertile Crescent
Azerbaijan
Syria
Palestine
Iranian Plateau
Armenian Highlands
Caucasus
Caucasus

Caucasus Mountains
Greater Caucasus
Lesser Caucasus
North Caucasus
South Caucasus
Kur-Araz Lowland
Lankaran Lowland
Alborz
Absheron Peninsula
Anatolia
Cilicia
Cappadocia
Alpide belt
South
Greater India
Indian subcontinent
Himalayas
Hindu

Hindu Kush
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
Ganges Basin
Ganges Delta
Pashtunistan
Punjab
Balochistan
Kashmir
Kashmir

Kashmir Valley
Pir Panjal Range
Thar Desert
Indus Valley
Indus River

Indus River Delta
Indus Valley Desert
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Eastern coastal plains
Western Coastal Plains
Meghalaya subtropical forests
MENASA
Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
Doab
Bagar tract
Great Rann of Kutch
Little Rann of Kutch
Deccan Plateau
Coromandel Coast
Konkan
False Divi Point
Hindi Belt
Ladakh
Aksai Chin
Gilgit-Baltistan
Baltistan
Shigar Valley
Karakoram
Saltoro Mountains
Siachen Glacier
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Mannar
Trans-
Karakoram

Karakoram Tract
Wakhan Corridor
Wakhjir Pass
Lakshadweep
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman Islands
Nicobar Islands
Maldive Islands
Alpide belt
Southeast
Mainland
Indochina
Malay Peninsula
Maritime
Peninsular Malaysia
Sunda Islands
Greater Sunda Islands
Lesser Sunda Islands
Indonesian Archipelago
Timor
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
Philippine Archipelago
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
Leyte Gulf
Gulf of Thailand
East Indies
Nanyang
Alpide belt
Asia-Pacific
Tropical Asia
Ring of Fire
v
t
e
Regions of Europe
North
Nordic
Northwestern
Scandinavia
Scandinavian Peninsula
Fennoscandia
Baltoscandia
Sápmi
West Nordic
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Iceland
Faroe Islands
East
Danubian countries
Prussia
Galicia
Volhynia
Donbass
Sloboda Ukraine
Sambia Peninsula
Amber Coast
Curonian Spit
Izyum Trail
Lithuania Minor
Nemunas Delta
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Vyborg Bay
Karelia
East Karelia
Karelian Isthmus
Lokhaniemi
Southeastern
Balkans
Aegean Islands
Gulf of Chania
North Caucasus
Greater Caucasus
Kabardia
European Russia
Southern Russia
Central
Baltic
Baltic Sea
Alpine states
Alpide belt
Mitteleuropa
Visegrád Group
West
Benelux
Low Countries
Northwest
British Isles
English Channel
Channel Islands
Cotentin Peninsula
Normandy
Brittany
Gulf of Lion
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Pyrenees
Alpide belt
South
Italian Peninsula
Insular Italy
Tuscan Archipelago
Aegadian Islands
Iberia
Al-Andalus
Baetic System
Gibraltar Arc
Southeastern
Mediterranean
Crimea
Alpide belt
Germanic
Celtic
Slavic countries
Uralic
European Plain
Eurasian Steppe
Pontic–Caspian steppe
Wild Fields
Pannonian Basin
Great Hungarian Plain
Little Hungarian Plain
Eastern Slovak Lowland
v
t
e
Regions of North America
Northern
Eastern Canada
Western Canada
Canadian Prairies
Central Canada
Northern Canada
Atlantic Canada
The Maritimes
French Canada
English Canada
Acadia
Acadian Peninsula
Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
Peace River Country
Cypress Hills
Palliser's Triangle
Canadian Shield
Interior Alaska-
Yukon

Yukon lowland taiga
Newfoundland (island)
Vancouver Island
Gulf Islands
Strait of Georgia
Canadian
Arctic

Arctic Archipelago
Labrador Peninsula
Gaspé Peninsula
Avalon Peninsula
Bay de Verde Peninsula
Brodeur Peninsula
Melville Peninsula
Bruce Peninsula
Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
Cook Peninsula
Gulf of Boothia
Georgian Bay
Hudson Bay
James Bay
Greenland
Pacific Northwest
Inland Northwest
Northeast
New England
Mid-Atlantic
Commonwealth
West
Midwest
Upper Midwest
Mountain States
Intermountain West
Basin and Range Province
Oregon Trail
Mormon Corridor
Calumet Region
Southwest
Old Southwest
Llano Estacado
Central United States
Tallgrass prairie
South
South Central
Deep South
Upland South
Four Corners
East Coast
West Coast
Gulf Coast
Third Coast
Coastal states
Eastern United States
Appalachia
Trans-Mississippi
Great North Woods
Great Plains
Interior Plains
Great Lakes
Great Basin
Great Basin

Great Basin Desert
Acadia
Ozarks
Ark-La-Tex
Waxhaws
Siouxland
Twin Tiers
Driftless Area
Palouse
Piedmont
Atlantic coastal plain
Outer Lands
Black Dirt Region
Blackstone Valley
Piney Woods
Rocky Mountains
Mojave Desert
The Dakotas
The Carolinas
Shawnee Hills
San Fernando Valley
Tornado Alley
North Coast
Lost Coast
Emerald Triangle
San Francisco Bay

San Francisco Bay Area
San Francisco Bay
North Bay (
San Francisco Bay

San Francisco Bay Area)
East Bay (
San Francisco Bay

San Francisco Bay Area)
Silicon Valley
Interior Alaska-
Yukon

Yukon lowland taiga
Gulf of Mexico
Lower Colorado River Valley
Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
Colville Delta
Arkansas Delta
Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
Mississippi Delta
Mississippi River Delta
Columbia River Estuary
Great Basin
High Desert
Monterey Peninsula
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
Lower Peninsula of Michigan
Virginia Peninsula
Keweenaw Peninsula
Middle Peninsula
Delmarva Peninsula
Alaska Peninsula
Kenai Peninsula
Niagara Peninsula
Beringia
Belt regions
Bible Belt
Black Belt
Corn Belt
Cotton Belt
Frost Belt
Rice Belt
Rust Belt
Sun Belt
Snow Belt
Latin
Northern Mexico
Baja California Peninsula
Gulf of California
Colorado River Delta
Gulf of Mexico
Soconusco
Tierra Caliente
La Mixteca
La Huasteca
Bajío
Valley of Mexico
Mezquital Valley
Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
Yucatán Peninsula
Basin and Range Province
Western Caribbean Zone
Isthmus of Panama
Gulf of Panama
Pearl Islands
Azuero Peninsula
Mosquito Coast
West Indies
Antilles
Greater Antilles
Lesser Antilles
Leeward
Leeward Antilles
Windward
Lucayan Archipelago
Southern Caribbean
Aridoamerica
Mesoamerica
Oasisamerica
Northern
Middle
Anglo
Latin
French
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
v
t
e
Regions of Oceania
Australasia
Gulf of Carpentaria
New Guinea
Bonis Peninsula
Papuan Peninsula
Huon Peninsula
Huon Gulf
Bird's Head Peninsula
Gazelle Peninsula
New Zealand
South Island
North Island
Coromandel Peninsula
Zealandia
New Caledonia
Solomon Islands (archipelago)
Vanuatu
Kula Gulf
Australia
Capital Country
Eastern Australia
Lake Eyre basin
Murray–Darling basin
Northern Australia
Nullarbor Plain
Outback
Southern Australia
Maralinga
Sunraysia
Great Victoria Desert
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf St Vincent
Lefevre Peninsula
Fleurieu Peninsula
Yorke Peninsula
Eyre Peninsula
Mornington Peninsula
Bellarine Peninsula
Mount Henry Peninsula
Melanesia
Islands Region
Bismarck Archipelago
Solomon Islands Archipelago
Fiji
New Caledonia
Papua New Guinea
Vanuatu
Micronesia
Caroline Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Palau
Guam
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Nauru
Northern Mariana Islands
Wake Island
Polynesia
Easter Island
Hawaiian Islands
Cook Islands
French Polynesia
Austral Islands
Gambier Islands
Marquesas Islands
Society Islands
Tuamotu
Kermadec Islands
Mangareva Islands
Samoa
Tokelau
Tonga
Tuvalu
Ring of Fire
v
t
e
Regions of South America
East
Amazon basin
Atlantic Forest
Caatinga
Cerrado
North
Caribbean South America
West Indies
Los Llanos
The Guianas
Amazon basin
Amazon rainforest
Gulf of Paria
Paria Peninsula
Paraguaná Peninsula
Orinoco Delta
South
Tierra del Fuego
Patagonia
Pampas
Pantanal
Gran Chaco
Chiquitano dry forests
Valdes Peninsula
West
Andes
Tropical Andes
Wet Andes
Dry Andes
Pariacaca mountain range
Altiplano
Atacama Desert
Latin
Hispanic
American Cordillera
Ring of Fire
LAC
v
t
e
Polar regions
Antarctic
Antarctic

Antarctic Peninsula
East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Eklund Islands
Ecozone
Extreme points
Islands
Arctic
Arctic

Arctic Alaska
British
Arctic

Arctic Territories
Canadian
Arctic

Arctic Archipelago
Finnmark
Greenland
Northern Canada
Northwest Territories
Nunavik
Nunavut
Russian Arctic
Sakha
Sápmi
Yukon
North American Arctic
v
t
e
Earth's oceans and seas
Arctic

Arctic Ocean
Amundsen Gulf
Barents Sea
Beaufort Sea
Chukchi Sea
East Siberian Sea
Greenland

Greenland Sea
Gulf of Boothia
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Lincoln Sea
Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
Pechora Sea
Queen Victoria Sea
Wandel Sea
White Sea
Atlantic Ocean
Adriatic Sea
Aegean Sea
Alboran Sea
Archipelago Sea
Argentine Sea
Baffin Bay
Balearic Sea
Baltic Sea
Bay of Biscay
Bay of Bothnia
Bay of Campeche
Bay of Fundy
Black Sea
Bothnian Sea
Caribbean Sea
Celtic Sea
English Channel
Foxe Basin
Greenland

Greenland Sea
Gulf of Bothnia
Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Lion
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Maine
Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Gulf of Sidra
Gulf of Venezuela
Hudson Bay
Ionian Sea
Irish Sea
Irminger Sea
James Bay
Labrador Sea
Levantine Sea
Libyan Sea
Ligurian Sea
Marmara Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Myrtoan Sea
North Sea
Norwegian Sea
Sargasso Sea
Sea of Åland
Sea of Azov
Sea of Crete
Sea of the Hebrides
Thracian Sea
Tyrrhenian Sea
Wadden Sea
Indian Ocean
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Bali

Bali Sea
Bay of Bengal
Flores

Flores Sea
Great Australian Bight
Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aqaba
Gulf of Khambhat
Gulf of Kutch
Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Suez
Java

Java Sea
Laccadive Sea
Mozambique Channel
Persian Gulf
Red Sea
Timor

Timor Sea
Pacific Ocean
Arafura Sea
Banda Sea
Bering Sea
Bismarck Sea
Bohai Sea
Bohol Sea
Camotes Sea
Celebes Sea
Ceram Sea
Chilean Sea
Coral Sea
East
China

China Sea
Gulf of Alaska
Gulf of Anadyr
Gulf of California
Gulf of Carpentaria
Gulf of Fonseca
Gulf of Panama
Gulf of Thailand
Gulf of Tonkin
Halmahera Sea
Koro Sea
Mar de Grau
Molucca Sea
Moro Gulf
Philippine Sea
Salish Sea
Savu Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
Seto Inland Sea
Shantar Sea
Sibuyan Sea
Solomon Sea
South
China

China Sea
Sulu Sea
Tasman Sea
Visayan Sea
Yellow Sea
Southern Ocean
Amundsen Sea
Bellingshausen Sea
Cooperation Sea
Cosmonauts Sea
Davis Sea
D'Urville Sea
King Haakon VII Sea
Lazarev Sea
Mawson Sea
Riiser-Larsen Sea
Ross Sea
Scotia Sea
Somov Sea
Weddell Sea
Landlocked seas
Aral Sea
Caspian Sea
Dead Sea
Salton Sea
Book
Category
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 255510483
GND: 40584