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The Songhai people (also Ayneha, Songhay or Sonrai)'' are an
ethnolinguistic group An ethnolinguistic group (or ethno-linguistic group) is a group that is unified by both a common ethnicity and language. Most ethnic groups share a first language. However, "ethnolinguistic" is often used to emphasise that language is a major ...
in
West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali ...
who speak the various Songhai languages. Their history and ''lingua franca'' is linked to the Songhai Empire which dominated the western
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
in the 15th and 16th century. Predominantly a Muslim community, the Songhai are found primarily throughout
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesMali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
in the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
and
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
. The name Songhai was historically neither an ethnic nor linguistic designation, but a name for the ruling caste of the Songhai Empire which are the Songhai proper of ''sunni'' and ''Askya'' dynasty found predominantly in present-day Niger. These people call themselves ''Ayneha''. Although some Speakers in
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
have also adopted the name ''Songhay'' as an ethnic designation, other Songhay-speaking groups identify themselves by other ethnic terms such as Zarma (or Djerma, the largest subgroup) or Isawaghen. The dialect of
Koyraboro Senni Koyraboro Senni (Koroboro Senni, Koyra Senni or Gao Senni) is a member of the Songhay languages of Mali and is spoken by some 400,000 people along the Niger River from the town of Gourma-Rharous, east of Timbuktu, through Bourem, Gao and Ansong ...
spoken in Gao is unintelligible to speakers of the Zarma dialect of
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesNilo-Saharan The Nilo-Saharan languages are a proposed family of African languages spoken by some 50–60 million people, mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers, including historic Nubia, north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. ...
but this classification remains controversial. Nicolai considers the Songhai languages to be either
Berber Berber or Berbers may refer to: Ethnic group * Berbers, an ethnic group native to Northern Africa * Berber languages, a family of Afro-Asiatic languages Places * Berber, Sudan, a town on the Nile People with the surname * Ady Berber (1913–19 ...
languages or a new subgroup of
Semitic languages The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of West Asia, the Horn of Africa, and latterly North Africa, Malta, West Africa, Chad, and in large immigrant ...
restructured under Mande and Nilo-Saharan influence. The lexicon of Songhai languages includes many complete lexical fields close to Berber languages. Dimmendaal (2008) believes that for now it is best considered an independent language family. The Songhai are
Nilo-Saharan The Nilo-Saharan languages are a proposed family of African languages spoken by some 50–60 million people, mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers, including historic Nubia, north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. ...
speaking populations living in the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
/
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
who have founded and led great empires and kingdoms in history. it descended from the powerful za dynasty of the Gao Empire,
Sunni Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a dis ...
and Askiya dynasty of the Songhai Empire one of the Largest contiguous land empire , Timbuktu pashalik and the
Zabarma Emirate The Zabarma Emirate was an Islamic state that existed from the 1860s to 1897 in what is today parts of Ghana and Burkina Faso. The leaders of the Zabarma Emirate, who belonged to the Zarma ethnicity from which the Emirate is named, originated in ...
. Proto Songhai descend from Nilotic and
afro-asiatic The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic s ...
pastoralists of
Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several pa ...
originating in
East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historica ...
having been the basis of the
Tenerian culture The Tenerian culture is a prehistoric industry that existed between the 5th millennium BC and mid-3rd millennium BC in the Sahara Desert. This spans the Neolithic Subpluvial and later desiccation, during the middle Holocene. French archaeologist ...
of the Aïr Mountains and who have absorbed through time
Chadic The Chadic languages form a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken in parts of the Sahel. They include 150 languages spoken across northern Nigeria, southern Niger, southern Chad, the Central African Republic, and northern Ca ...
Niger-Congo,
Berbers , image = File:Berber_flag.svg , caption = The Berber ethnic flag , population = 36 million , region1 = Morocco , pop1 = 14 million to 18 million , region2 = Algeria , pop2 ...
Arabs The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
Spanish in the south and berbers and arabs in the north. They are divided into two groups, the Northern songhai composed of
White White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White ...
skinned Pastoralists
Camel A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
herders ( Idaksahak people-
Igdalen people The Igdalen (var.: Igdalan, Agdal) are a Berber people inhabiting northwestern Niger and parts of Mali and Algeria.Oasis In ecology, an oasis (; ) is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environment'ksar''with its surrounding feeding source, the palm grove, within a relational and circulatory nomadic system.” The location of oases has been of critical imp ...
of the sahara cultivator of Date palms (
Belbali people , image= , caption= , pop= , date= , ref= , region1= Tabelbala, Béchar Province , pop1= 3,000 (2010) , date1= , ref1= , region2= , pop2= , date2= , ref2= , region3= , pop3= , date3= , ref3= , region4= , pop4= , date4= , re ...
-
Ingalkoyyu people The Ingalkoyyu or Isawaghan people are a Northern Songhay ethnic group around In-Gall in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
), the Southern Songhai at the base of the great empires inhabiting the loop of the
Niger river The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mal ...
(call the hump of the camel by historians) are great breeders of
Horses The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million ...
,
Camels A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
,
beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). In prehistoric times, humankind hunted aurochs and later domesticated them. Since that time, numerous breeds of cattle have been bred specifically for the quality or quantit ...
, great farmers of
Rice Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and '' Porteresia'', both wild and domesticat ...
,
Millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets a ...
,
Wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
,
Tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
, great
Hippopotamus The hippopotamus ( ; : hippopotamuses or hippopotami; ''Hippopotamus amphibius''), also called the hippo, common hippopotamus, or river hippopotamus, is a large semiaquatic mammal native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of only two exta ...
fishermen and
Lions The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large cat of the genus '' Panthera'' native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body; short, rounded head; round ears; and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphic; ad ...
hunters ( Djerma- Songhai proper- Arma- Dendi). The great military history of the Songhai is linked to their
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in ...
(
Horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million yea ...
,
camel A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
, Mounted archer) and their mastery of the waterways. The songhay converted to Islam since 8th century by Libyan Arab traders,Margari Hill (2009)
The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from the Eighth to the Twentieth Century
Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies, Stanford University are among the first people of
west Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali ...
to convert to Islam and were the first to convert
Fula people The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region ...
, . The Songhai cities of
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
,
Djenné Djenné ( Bambara: ߘߖߋߣߣߋ tr. Djenne; also known as Djénné, Jenné and Jenne) is a Songhai people town and an urban commune in the Inland Niger Delta region of central Mali. The town is the administrative centre of the Djenné Cercle, ...
, Gao are part of the
World heritage A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
for having been great intellectual and political historical centers of world renown. The songhai country called the camel's hump by historians is historically similar to
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes the fo ...
and the
Near East The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...
. Askia Muhammad I, Sunni Ali Ber,
Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti Aḥmad Bābā al-Timbuktī (), full name Abū al-Abbās Aḥmad ibn Aḥmad ibn Aḥmad ibn Umar ibn Muhammad Aqit al-Takrūrī Al-Massufi al-Timbuktī (1556 – 1627 CE, 963 – 1036 H), was a Sanhaja Berbers, Berber writer, scholar, an ...
,
Mahmud Kati Al Hajj Mahmud Kati (or Mahmoud Kati) (1468? - 1552 or 1593) was an African Muslim Songhai scholar. He is traditionally held to be the author of the West African chronicle ''Tarikh al-fattash'', though the authorship is contested. Kati grew up in ...
, Babatu,
Seyni Kountche Seyni is a name. Notable people with the name include: Given name *Seyni Garba, Nigerien army general *Seyni Kountché (1931–1987), Nigerien military officer and president *Seyni N'Diaye (born 1973), Senegalese football player *Seyni Oumarou Seyn ...
are Songhai historical personalities.


Geographic distribution

The songhai people occupy the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
/
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
region between North Africa and subsaharan Africa, from the North of
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
in the west to the
Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
in the East and from the south-west of
Algeria ) , image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Algiers , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , relig ...
to the North of
Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
and
Benin Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the nort ...
passing through
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesBurkina Faso Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana t ...
and
Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Tog ...
where a few communities have migrated.


History


za dynasty

The Za dynasty or Zuwa dynasty were rulers of a medieval kingdom based in the towns of Kukiya and Gao on the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mal ...
in what is today modern
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
. The Songhai people at large all descended from this kingdom. The most notable of them being the Zarma people of
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages Al-Sadi's seventeenth century chronicle, the '' Tarikh al-Sudan'', provides an early history of the Songhay as handed down by oral tradition. The chronicle reports that the legendary founder of the dynasty, Za Alayaman (also called Dialliaman), originally came from the
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast and ...
and settled in the town of Kukiya. The town is believed to have been near the modern village of Bentiya on the eastern bank of the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mal ...
, north of the Fafa rapids, 134 km south east of Gao. Tombstones with Arabic inscriptions dating from the 14th and 15th centuries have been found in the area. Kukiya is also mentioned in the other important chronicle, the '' Tarikh al-fattash''. The ''Tarikh al-Sudan'' relates that the 15th ruler, Za Kusoy, converted to Islam in the year 1009–1010 A.D. At some stage the kingdom or at least its political focus moved north to Gao. The kingdom of Gao capitalized on the growing
trans-Saharan trade Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century. The Sahara once had a very d ...
and grew into a small regional power before being conquered by the
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
in the early 13th century.


Gao Empire and Gao saney

Gao-Saney became well known among African historians because French administrators discovered here in a cave covered with sand in 1939 several finely carved marble stelae produced in Almeria in Southern Spain. Their inscriptions bear witness of three kings of a Muslim dynasty bearing as loan names the names of
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mon ...
and his two successors. From the dates of their deaths it appears that these kings of Gao ruled at the end of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth centuries CE. According to recent research, the Zaghe kings commemorated by the stelae are identical with the kings of the Za dynasty whose names were recorded by the chroniclers of
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
in the Ta'rikh al-Sudan and in the Ta'rikh al-Fattash. Their Islamic loan name is in one case complemented by their African name. It is on the basis of their common ancestral name Zaghe corresponding to Za and the third royal name Yama b. Kama provided in addition to 'Umar b. al-Khattab that the identity between the Zaghe and the Za could be established. It appears from this table that Yama b. Kima (or 'Umar b. al-Khattab), the third king of the stelae of Gao-Saney, is identical with the 18th ruler of the list of Za kings. His name is given in the '' Ta'rikh al-Fattash'' (1665) as Yama-Kitsi and in the '' Ta'rikh al-Sudan'' (1655) as Biyu-Ki-Kima. On account of this identification the dynastic history of the Gao Empire can now to be established on a solid documentary basis. Apart from some Arabic epitaphs on tombstones discovered in 1939 at the cemetery of Gao-Saney (6 km to the east of the city) there are no surviving indigenous written records that date from before the middle of the 17th century. Our knowledge of the early history of the town relies on the writings of external Arabic geographers living in Morocco, Egypt and Andalusia, who never visited the region. These authors referred to the town as Kawkaw or Kuku. The two key 17th century chronicles, the '' Tarikh al-Sudan'' and the '' Tarikh al-Fattash'', provide information on the town at the time of the Songhai Empire but they contain only vague indications on the time before. The chronicles do not, in general, acknowledge their sources. Their accounts for the earlier periods are almost certainly based on oral tradition and for events before the second half of the 15th century they are likely to be less reliable. For these earlier periods the two chronicles sometimes provide conflicting information. The earliest mention of Gao is by al-Khwārizmī who wrote in the first half of the 9th century. In the 9th century Gao was already an important regional power. Al-Yaqubi wrote in his ''Tarikh'' in around 872:
There is the kingdom of the Kawkaw, which is the greatest of the realms of the Sūdān, the most important and most powerful. All the kingdoms obey its king. Al-Kawkaw is the name of the town. Besides this there are a number of kingdoms of which the rulers pay allegiance to him and acknowledge his sovereignty, although they are kings in their own lands.
In the 10th century Gao was already Muslim and was described as consisting of two separate towns. Al-Muhallabi, who died in 990, wrote in a lost work quoted in the biographical dictionary compiled by Yaqut:
Their king pretends before his subject to be a Muslim and most of them pretend to be Muslims too. He has a town on the Nile iger on the eastern bank, which is called Sarnāh, where there are markets and trading houses and to which there is continuous traffic from all parts. He has another town to the west of the Nile igerwhere he and his men and those who have his confidence live. There is a mosque there where he prays but the communal prayer ground is between the two towns.
The archaeological evidence suggests that there were two settlements on the eastern bank of the Niger: Gao Ancien situated within the modern town, to the east of the Tomb of Askia, and the archaeological site of Gao-Saney (Sané in French) situated around 4 km to the east. The bed of the Wadi Gangaber passes to the south of the Gao-Saney occupation mound ( tell) but to the north of Gao Ancien. The imported pottery and glass recovered from Gao-Saney suggest that the site was occupied between the 8th and 12th centuries. It is possible that Gao-Saney corresponds to Sarnāh of al-Muhallabi.
Al-Bakri Abū ʿUbayd ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Ayyūb ibn ʿAmr al-Bakrī ( ar, أبو عبيد عبد الله بن عبد العزيز بن محمد بن أيوب بن عمرو البكري), or simply al-Bakrī (c. 1040–1 ...
writing in 1068 also records the existence of two towns, but al-Idrisi writing in around 1154 does not. Both al-Muhallabi (see quote above) and al-Bakri situate Gao on the west (or right bank) of the Niger. The 17th century '' Tarikh al-Fattash'' also states that in the 10th century Gao was situated on the Gourma side (i.e. the west bank) of the river. A large sand dune, ''La Dune Rose'', lies on the west bank opposite Gao, but at Koima, on the edge of the dune at a site 4 km north of Gao, surface deposits indicate a pre 9th century settlement. This could be the west bank Gao mentioned by 10th and 11th century authors. The site has not been excavated. Al-Sadi in his '' Tarikh al-Sudan'' gives a slightly later date for the introduction of Islam. He lists 32 rulers of the
Zuwa dynasty The Za dynasty or Zuwa dynasty were rulers of a medieval kingdom based in the towns of Kukiya and Gao on the Niger River in what is today modern Mali. The Songhai people at large all descended from this kingdom. The most notable of them being the Za ...
and states that in 1009–1010 A.D. the 15th ruler, Zuwa Kusoy, was the first to convert to Islam. Towards the end of the 13th century Gao lost its independence and became part of the expanding
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
. What happened to the Zuwa rulers is not recorded.
Ibn Battuta Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim ...
visited Gao in 1353 when the town formed part of the Mali Empire. He arrived by boat from Timbuktu on his return journey from visiting the capital of the Empire:
Then I travelled to the town of Kawkaw, which is a great town on the Nīl iger one of the finest, biggest, and most fertile cities of the Sūdān. There is much rice there, and milk, and chickens, and fish, and the cucumber, which has no like. Its people conduct their buying and selling with cowries, like the people of Mālī.
After staying a month in the town, Ibn Battuta left with a caravan for Takedda and from there headed north back across the Sahara to an oasis in
Tuat Tuat, or Touat, is a natural region of desert in central Algeria that contains a string of small oases. In the past, the oases were important for caravans crossing the Sahara. Geography Tuat lies to the south of the Grand Erg Occidental, to ...
with a large caravan that included 600 slave girls.


Rule of the Mali Empire

Towards the end of the 13th century Gao lost its independence and became part of the expanding
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
. According to the '' Tarikh al-Sudan'', the cities of Gao and
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
submitted to Musa's rule as he traveled through on his return to Mali. According to one account given by Ibn Khaldun, Musa's general Saghmanja conquered Gao. The other account claims that Gao had been conquered during the reign of Mansa Sakura. Both of these accounts may be true, as Mali's control of Gao may have been weak, requiring powerful mansas to reassert their authority periodically. Both chronicles provide details on Ali Kulun (or Ali Golom) the founder of the Sunni dynasty. He revolted against the hegemony of the
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
. A date is not given in the chronicles but the comment in the ''Tarikh al-fattash'' that the fifth ruler was in power at time when
Mansa Musa Mansa Musa ( ar, منسا موسى, Mansā Mūsā; ) was the ninth ''mansa'' of the Mali Empire, which reached its territorial peak during his reign. Musa is known for his wealth and generosity. He has been subject to popular claims that he is ...
made his pilgrimage suggests that Ali Kulun reigned around the end of the 14th century. Both chronicles associate Ali Kulun (or Ali Golom) with the Mali court. The ''Tarikh al-Sudan'' relates that his father was Za Yasoboy, and as a son of a subordinate ruler of the Mali Empire, he had to serve the sultan of Mali. The chronicles do not specify where the early rulers lived. As there is evidence that Gao remained under Mali control until the early fifteenth century, it is probably that the early Sunni rulers controlled a region to the south, with the town of Kukiya possibly serving as their capital. As the economic strength of Mali Empire relied on controlling routes across the Sahara, it would not have been necessary to control the area to the south of Gao. Al-Sadi, the author of the ''Tarikh al-Sudan'' uses the word Sunni or Sonni for the name of the dynasty while the ''Tarikh al-fattash'' uses the forms ''chi'' and ''si'i''. The word may have a Malinke origin meaning "a subordinate or confidant of the ruler". Under the rule of Sunni Sulayman, the Songhai captured the Mema region to the west of Lake Débo.


Songhai Empire

In 1464 the Songhai seceded from the declining Mali Empire, the Songhai country regained its total independence. In 1464 Sunni Ali Ber said the Shi where Ali the great acceded to the throne of the kingdom of Gao which had just gained independence from
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
and founded the Sunni dynasty , a true military genius he had 400 ships built at the head of which he appointed an admiral, the Hikoy and made reform the land army, with an insatiable thirst for conquest he launches invading armies in all directions, the leader of these own military operations with genius leads 32 wars in 26 years, all of which he wins and extends his territory over a good part of the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
and the
Maghreb The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
, always victorious never defeated, he chased the Tuareg invaders from
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
and annexed the city, they submitted and annexed the
Berbers , image = File:Berber_flag.svg , caption = The Berber ethnic flag , population = 36 million , region1 = Morocco , pop1 = 14 million to 18 million , region2 = Algeria , pop2 ...
kingdoms of the North, annexed the Empire of Mali in full decline, submitted and annexed the gourma, submits the Dogon, submits the Almoravids and conquers the country of birou ( Oualata), they submit the Soninke and conquers the heir kingdoms of the former
Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire, also known as Wagadou ( ar, غانا) or Awkar, was a West African empire based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali that existed from c. 300 until 1100. The Empire was founded by the Soninke people, a ...
, he conquers of
Djenné Djenné ( Bambara: ߘߖߋߣߣߋ tr. Djenne; also known as Djénné, Jenné and Jenne) is a Songhai people town and an urban commune in the Inland Niger Delta region of central Mali. The town is the administrative centre of the Djenné Cercle, ...
after 7 years of siege, he reformed the administration and created new provinces, the Songhai knew in his time a strong militarization and they remained the father of several organizations and military tactics that the kingdoms which would come after the Songhai Empire would use , especially the Fula and Tuareg, they died out in 1492 after 27 years and 4 months of reign. Sunni Baru succeeded on November 6 1492 to his father Sunni Ali on the imperial throne but only lasted a few months, he was dethroned by his cousin Askiya Mohammed in 12 April 1493 during the Battle of Anfao pushed by the Ulemas of
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
who saw in Sunni Baru a follower of his father's rigorous military policy, defeated, he retired to the dendi where he founded a new kingdom. Askiya Mohammed son of Princess Kassay sister of Sunni Ali Ber and Abubakar a non-member of the Royal clan to occupy the positions of general in the army and governor of the province of
Hombori Hombori is a small town and rural commune in the Cercle of Douentza in the Mopti Region of Mali. The commune contains 25 villages and in the 2009 census had a population of 23,099. The town lies just to the north of the Hombori Tondo mesa on the ...
before his coup d'etat of April 12, 1493 , they founded the
Askiya dynasty The Askiya dynasty, also known as the Askia dynasty, ruled the Songhai Empire at the height of that state's power. It was founded in 1493 by Askia Mohammad I, a general of the Songhai Empire who usurped the Sonni dynasty. The Askiya ruled from Gao ...
and resumed the predatory policy of his uncle, the invading armies were sent in all directions, at his time the Songhai began a period of massive expansion. pious Muslims they indulged less in cruelty and spared scholars, these wars looked more like holy wars. to the west askia Mohamed annexes the
Empire of Great Fulo The Empire of Great Fulo, also known as the Denanke Kingdom or Denianke Kingdom, was a Pulaar kingdom of Senegal, which dominated the Futa Tooro region. Its population dominated its neighbors through use of cavalry and fought wars against the M ...
by defeating koli tenguella, they annex the Jolof Empire, the kaabu, they conquer all the Mandinka territories and ransack niani the capital of Mali, they annex the
Fouta Toro Futa Toro ( Wolof and ff, Fuuta Tooro ''𞤆𞤵𞥄𞤼𞤢 𞤚𞤮𞥄𞤪𞤮''; ar, فوتا تورو), often simply the Futa, is a semidesert region around the middle run of the Senegal River. This region is along the border of Senegal an ...
, the bakhounou , the kingdom of Diarra and submits all of
Senegambia The Senegambia (other names: Senegambia region or Senegambian zone,Barry, Boubacar, ''Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade'', (Editors: David Anderson, Carolyn Brown; trans. Ayi Kwei Armah; contributors: David Anderson, American Council of Le ...
, the Songhai now extends over the western
Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...
coast The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in n ...
. To the east, the Songhai armies annexed the Dendi founded by Sunni Baru, to the north they conquered the Berber kingdoms of Takedda and the Ayar sultanate, with the help of the kanta kebbi they conquered the Hausa Kingdoms and plunges towards the dense forest where it will be stopped by the climate and the geography not favorable to the Sahelian accustomed to the dry and hot ground, in the East the limits of Songhai are fixed by a border with the Kanem Empire in
Central Africa Central Africa is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Angola, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Co ...
, it scrambles with the kanta kebbi on a story of booty and the two separated, he attempted a conquest of the borgou but was repelled. In 1497 the askia Mohammed made a significant pilgrimage to
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow v ...
where he received the title of
Caliph A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
of Sudan, returning he launches the holy war against nassere king of the Mossi and submits him, then makes the annexation of the gourma.


Demographic

The Songhai are distributed in 8 African countries in the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
in
West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali ...
, in the
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
in
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
and in the Sudan in
North East Africa Northeast Africa, or ''Northeastern Africa'' or Northern East Africa as it was known in the past, is a geographic regional term used to refer to the countries of Africa situated in and around the Red Sea. The region is intermediate between North ...
and
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004 ...
, their historical habitat regions located between the Sahel and the Sahara is home to their highest concentration.


Niger

the songhai constitute the 2nd largest ethnic group in
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesHausa with more than 5 million people . The sedentary southern group is mainly concentrated in the regions of Tillabéri , Dosso and in Niamey (the capital of Niger) to the West of the country where they are the majority population, the northern pastoral group is distributed in the regions of Tillabéri , Agadez , Tahoua , Maradi Zinder where they lead a life of Nomadic Pastoralist camel herders and population of the
Oasis In ecology, an oasis (; ) is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environment'ksar''with its surrounding feeding source, the palm grove, within a relational and circulatory nomadic system.” The location of oases has been of critical imp ...
of the Aïr Massif . The subgroups present in Niger are the farmer-breeders including the Zarma people , Songhai proper , Wogo people , Kourtey people speaking the
Southern Songhay languages Southern Songhay is the more populous branch of the Songhay languages, centered on the Niger River, including Timbuktu and the old capital of Gao. It includes Zarma (Djerma), a major language of Niger. Languages The languages are, approximate ...
and the pastoralist group of the northern songhai including the Idaksahak people ,
Igdalen people The Igdalen (var.: Igdalan, Agdal) are a Berber people inhabiting northwestern Niger and parts of Mali and Algeria.Ingalkoyyu people The Ingalkoyyu or Isawaghan people are a Northern Songhay ethnic group around In-Gall in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
speaking the n
Northern Songhay languages Northern Songhay is the smaller of the two branches of the Songhay languages. It is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in scattered oases of the Sahara. Languages The nomadic varieties include Tihishit in central Niger arou ...
. ; Places The three major cities in Niger with a high concentration of songhai are the towns of Tillabéri,
Dosso, Niger Dosso is a city in the south-west corner of Niger. It lies south-east of the capital Niamey at the junction of the main routes to Zinder and Benin. The eighth-most populous town in Niger and the largest in Dosso Region, it had an official popu ...
capitals of the regions of the same name, and Niamey the capital of
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesAyourou Ayourou (or Ayorou or Ayerou) is a town and rural commune in the Tillabéri Region, in western Niger.
,
Téra Téra is a city in the Tillabéri Region, Tera Department of Niger. It is situated 175 km north-west of the capital Niamey, close to the border with Burkina Faso. It is mainly inhabited by Songhai, Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe ...
, Kokorou,
Namaro Namaro is a village and rural commune in Niger.Dargol Dargol is a village and rural commune A commune is an alternative term for an intentional community. Commune or comună or comune or other derivations may also refer to: Administrative-territorial entities * Commune (administrative division), a ...
,
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively ...
, Diagourou,
Mehana Mehana is a town and commune in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesGothèye, Kollo, Dessa, Sinder,
Kourteye Kourteye is a village and rural commune in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
, Boubon, Gorouol, Anzourou, Sakoira,
Sikié Sikié (also Sikièye, Sikiay, Sikiey ) is a Songhai town near Namaro in Niger. Sikié was the place where the defeated Songhai Empire army led by Askia Muhammed Gao installed their base hoping for a possible passage of the Moroccan army. Histo ...
, Ouallam,
Simiri Simiri is a village in the Ouallam Department of the Tillabéri Region in southwestern Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
,
Bani Bangou Bani-Bangou (var. Banibanagan) is a town in southwestern Niger, in rural northern Ouallam Department, Tillabéri Region. It is the capital of the rural commune of Bani-Bangou. On the main highway from Ouallam on the route to the Malian border to ...
,
Tondikiwindi Tondikiwindi is a village and rural commune in Niger.Damana,
Tondikandia Tondikandia is a rural commune in Filingué Department, Tillabéri Region, Niger. Its chief place and administrative center is the town of Damana. Geography Tondikania, some 120 km northeast of the capital Niamey. It is centered in the larg ...
, Kollo, Hamdallaye, Kouré, Kirtachi, Dantchandou,
Kiota Kiota is a small town and rural commune in Niger in the Boboye Department, Dosso Region.
, Libore, N'Dounga,
Tiloa Tiloa is a town in Niger. On February 23, 2015, 15 soldiers of the Niger Armed Forces The Niger Armed Forces (french: Forces armées nigériennes) (FAN) includes military armed force service branches ( Niger Army and Niger Air Force), paramili ...
,
Dingazi Dingazi is a village and rural commune in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
, Fabidji, Falmey, Koygolo, Harikanassou, N'Gonga, Mokko, Nikki Béri, Moussadey, Garankedey, Loga, Sandiré, Goroubankassam, Dioundiou, Gaya, Tanda, Bengou, Bana,
Falwel Falwel is a village and rural commune A commune is an alternative term for an intentional community. Commune or comună or comune or other derivations may also refer to: Administrative-territorial entities * Commune (administrative division), a m ...
, Sokorbé,
Tessa Tessa is a feminine given name, sometimes a shortened form of Theresa. It may refer to: People * Tessa Albertson (born 1996), American actress * Tessa Balfour, Countess of Balfour (born 1950), British aristocrat * Tessa Blanchard (born 1994), Am ...
, Yelou .
Oasis In ecology, an oasis (; ) is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environment'ksar''with its surrounding feeding source, the palm grove, within a relational and circulatory nomadic system.” The location of oases has been of critical imp ...
Town A town is a human settlement. Towns are generally larger than villages and smaller than cities, though the criteria to distinguish between them vary considerably in different parts of the world. Origin and use The word "town" shares an o ...
of In-Gall,
Tegguiada In Tessoum Tegguiada In Tessoum is a town in Agadez Region, Arlit Department, Niger.Teguidda-n-Tessoumt, N ...
The cleric pastoralist group of Igdalen and iberogan camel herders occupies the east of the
Tahoua Region Tahoua is one of eight Regions of Niger. The capital of the region is the commune of Tahoua. The region covers 106,677 km². Geography Tahoua borders Agadez Region to the northeast, Maradi Region to the southeast, Nigeria's Sokoto State to ...
, the west and south of the
Agadez Region Agadez Region is one of the seven regions of Niger. At , it covers more than half of Niger's land area, and is the largest region in the country, as well as the largest African state subdivision. The capital of the department is Agadez. Histo ...
, the north of the
Maradi Region The Region of Maradi is one of seven Region of Niger. It is located in south-central Niger, east of the Region of Tahoua, west of Zinder, and north of the Nigerian city of Katsina. The administrative centre is at Maradi. The population of the R ...
, the north of the Zinder Region . their nomadization areas Includes the valleys of the azawagh, the irahzer, the azgueret, the plains of the talak, the Tamesna, the mountainous massif of the air, the high plateau of the Damagaram-mounio and the Damergou their main centers of habitat and frequentation are: Tamaya, Kokari , Akenzigi , Teggida N'adrar , Tiggerwit , Assaouas , In Gitane , Marandet ,
Aderbissinat Aderbissinat is a town and commune in central Niger. As of 2011, the commune had a total population of 27,523 people. It lies in the Sahel, the semi-arid, sparsely populated zone between the Sahara Desert to the north and the millet-growing savan ...
,
Tillia Tillia is a village and rural commune in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
, Shadawanka ,
Abalak Abalak (or Abalagh) (in tamajeq ⴰⴱⴰⵍⴰⵗ) is a town located in the Tahoua Region, Abalak Department of northern Niger. It is both a town and Commune: a local administrative division. It is the seat (''Chef-lieu'') of Abalak Departme ...
, Tofamanir , In Wagheur ,
Tchintabaraden Tchintabaraden (var. Tchin-Tabaraden, Tchin Tabaraden) is a town and Communes of Niger, commune located in the Azawagh area of Niger, in the north of the Tahoua Region.It is the capital of the region's Tchintabaraden Department. It is the market ...
, In Fagagan ,
Taza Taza ( ber, ⵜⴰⵣⴰ, ar, تازة) is a city in northern Morocco occupying the corridor between the Rif mountains and Middle Atlas mountains, about 120 km east of Fez and 150 km west of Al hoceima. It recorded a population of ...
, Ibankar n'iklan , Telemcès ,
Dakoro Dakoro is a town and commune located in the Maradi Region of Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
, Bermo , Tagriss , Azagor ,
Tanout Tanout is a town in southern Niger. It is in Zinder Region, Tanout Department, north of the city of Zinder. It is the administrative capital of Tanout Department. History Since 1987, the Eden Foundation, an NGO aiming at providing trees for "d ...
, Tarka


Niger

*'' Zarma people'' *'' Songhai proper'' *'' Wogo people'' *''
Kurtey people The Kurtey people (var. Kourtey) are a small ethnic group found along the Niger River valley in parts of the West African nations of Niger, Benin, Mali, and Nigeria. They are also found in considerable numbers in Ghana, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burki ...
'' *''
Igdalen people The Igdalen (var.: Igdalan, Agdal) are a Berber people inhabiting northwestern Niger and parts of Mali and Algeria.Ingalkoyyu people The Ingalkoyyu or Isawaghan people are a Northern Songhay ethnic group around In-Gall in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
'' *''
Arma people The Arma people are an ethnic group of the middle Niger River valley, descended from Moroccan invaders of the 16th century . The name, applied by other groups, derives from the word ''ar-rumah'' ( ar, الرماة) "fusiliers". N. Levtzion, "No ...
''


Algeria

*
Belbali people , image= , caption= , pop= , date= , ref= , region1= Tabelbala, Béchar Province , pop1= 3,000 (2010) , date1= , ref1= , region2= , pop2= , date2= , ref2= , region3= , pop3= , date3= , ref3= , region4= , pop4= , date4= , re ...


Mali

*''
Arma people The Arma people are an ethnic group of the middle Niger River valley, descended from Moroccan invaders of the 16th century . The name, applied by other groups, derives from the word ''ar-rumah'' ( ar, الرماة) "fusiliers". N. Levtzion, "No ...
'' *'' Idaksahak people''


Benin

*''
Dendi people The Dendi are an ethnic group located in Benin, Niger, Nigeria and northern Togo mainly in the plains of the Niger River. They are part of the Songhai people. Derived from the Songhay language, the term "Dendi" translates to "down the river." Th ...
''


Sudan

*'' Zarma people''(zabarmawi)


Ethnicity

The Songhai people are made up of several ethnic groups, themselves made up of several subgroups and clans. If some ethnic groups are recognized as being of authentic Songhai descent, others have become so by assimilation throughout history through various means, the za dynasty or zaghe remains the backbone to which it all has become to aggregate. If the tarikh and the oral tradition evoke a southern Arabian origin of the dynasty (probably from the kingdom of axum which dominated southern Arabia at the time when the zaghe settled in the
sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
and whose names of the sovereigns resemble those of the za) and that European researchers see rather a Berber origin, the origin of the Za dynasty remains unclear as the classification of the Songhai language and the resolution of one of the dilemmas will bring that of the other.


Southern Songhai People

speakers of
Southern Songhay languages Southern Songhay is the more populous branch of the Songhay languages, centered on the Niger River, including Timbuktu and the old capital of Gao. It includes Zarma (Djerma), a major language of Niger. Languages The languages are, approximate ...
(
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
,
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
,
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004 ...
) *In the 11th century a tension leads to a division of the dynasty into two branches, an eastern branch having continued to lead the Empire of Gao and at the origin of the Sunni dynasty and
Askiya dynasty The Askiya dynasty, also known as the Askia dynasty, ruled the Songhai Empire at the height of that state's power. It was founded in 1493 by Askia Mohammad I, a general of the Songhai Empire who usurped the Sonni dynasty. The Askiya ruled from Gao ...
and a dissident western branch which migrated to the region of Timbuktu . The development of the Gao Empire and the rise of the songhai commercial towns of the loop of the Niger allowed the installation in Songhai country of traders of various origins (Mandé, sanhadja, soninké, Tuareg, Peulh, Arabs...) who at the time was married and assimilated to the indigenous Songhai population . In the 8th century traders of Arab origin brought Islam to Songhai and cities like Timbuktu and Gao became poles of knowledge attracting even more people, the peak of the confluence of people on the bend of the Niger begins with the
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
and continues with the native Songhai Empire which promotes the installation of Arab families from the Near East and Sephardic Jews of
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
Expert in agriculture converted to Islam by the Askiya emperors, all these newcomers at the time of the power of Songhai, adopt the language of the leaders and are assimilated by the Songhai, an urban elite called koyrabore (people of the city) is formed in the big cities with the
Koyra Chiini Koyra Chiini (, figuratively "town language"), or Western Songhay, is a member of the Songhay languages spoken in Mali by about 200,000 people (in 1999) along the Niger River in Timbuktu and upriver from it in the towns of Diré, Tonka, Gounda ...
(Timbuktu) and
Koyraboro Senni Koyraboro Senni (Koroboro Senni, Koyra Senni or Gao Senni) is a member of the Songhay languages of Mali and is spoken by some 400,000 people along the Niger River from the town of Gourma-Rharous, east of Timbuktu, through Bourem, Gao and Ansong ...
(Gao) dialects of Songhai as a language, it is to this category of Songhai that belongs
Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti Aḥmad Bābā al-Timbuktī (), full name Abū al-Abbās Aḥmad ibn Aḥmad ibn Aḥmad ibn Umar ibn Muhammad Aqit al-Takrūrī Al-Massufi al-Timbuktī (1556 – 1627 CE, 963 – 1036 H), was a Sanhaja Berbers, Berber writer, scholar, an ...
,
Mahmud Kati Al Hajj Mahmud Kati (or Mahmoud Kati) (1468? - 1552 or 1593) was an African Muslim Songhai scholar. He is traditionally held to be the author of the West African chronicle ''Tarikh al-fattash'', though the authorship is contested. Kati grew up in ...
and others . slaves brought from conquered countries are also assimilated to the culture of the country by their Songhai masters . * The conquest of Djenne by
Sonni Ali Ber Sunni Ali, also known as Si Ali, Sunni Ali Ber (Ber meaning "the Great"), was born in Ali Kolon. He reigned from about 1464 to 1492. Sunni Ali was the first king of the Songhai Empire, located in Africa and the 15th ruler of the Sunni dynasty. ...
was the starting point for the assimilation to Songhai of the populations of the region, the installation of garrison, the marriage between Sonni ali ber and the queen of Djenné, the importance of Djenné in As a market and center of knowledge, many Songhai migrated to the area, the newcomers made their language the main language of the city and all the Eastern Mandé peoples and Eastern Macina Fula assimilated into Songhai koyraboro and created a new variety of Songhai, the Djenné Chiini derived from Koyra Chiini. *the Moroccans (
Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arabs, Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert ...
,
Berbers , image = File:Berber_flag.svg , caption = The Berber ethnic flag , population = 36 million , region1 = Morocco , pop1 = 14 million to 18 million , region2 = Algeria , pop2 ...
) and renegade
Spaniards Spaniards, or Spanish people, are a Romance ethnic group native to Spain. Within Spain, there are a number of national and regional ethnic identities that reflect the country's complex history, including a number of different languages, both ...
, Portuguese,
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
, English of the army of the Saadian sultanate who invaded the Songhai Empire in 1500 was made up solely of men dispersed in garrison to call kasbah throughout the Songhai country (Forgho, Bourem , ha, hamakulaji....), The death of a good part of the songhai warriors at the battle of tondibi left many songhai widows, the saadian army being made up only of men, the saadian soldiers therefore marry the widows of the songhai who died and fled.their descendants from this interbreeding were absorbed by the songhai as a subgroup called
Arma people The Arma people are an ethnic group of the middle Niger River valley, descended from Moroccan invaders of the 16th century . The name, applied by other groups, derives from the word ''ar-rumah'' ( ar, الرماة) "fusiliers". N. Levtzion, "No ...
, the Arma whose name derives from the Arabic word ''ar-rumah'': rifleman, skirmishers, armada will lead the Niger loop with the pashalik of
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
as a Sahelian province of the
Saadi Sultanate The Saadi Sultanate (also rendered in English as Sa'di, Sa'did, Sa'dian, or Saadian; ar, السعديون, translit=as-saʿdiyyūn) was a state which ruled present-day Morocco and parts of West Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was l ...
of Morocco, the arma occupy the positions of ''Gao alkaydo'' (caid of Gao) and pasha of Timbuktu, they form since the fall of the Songhay Empire until the colonization the elite of the cities of Gao and Timbuktu, they are divided into several clans according to their origins, the ''Markashi'' (nobility) originating from
Marrakech Marrakesh or Marrakech ( or ; ar, مراكش, murrākuš, ; ber, ⵎⵕⵕⴰⴽⵛ, translit=mṛṛakc}) is the fourth largest city in the Kingdom of Morocco. It is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrakes ...
, the ''Fasi'' originating from Fez, the ''Filali'' originating from
Tafilalet Tafilalt or Tafilet (; ar, تافيلالت), historically Sijilmasa, is a region and the largest oasis in Morocco. Etymology The word "Tafilalt" is an Amazigh word and it means "Jug", which is specifically a pottery jar used to store water. ...
, the ''hala'' comprising the Bedouin tribes, the ''andalu'' comprising the European soldiers, they are part of Songhay Koyreboro and speak
Koyra Chiini Koyra Chiini (, figuratively "town language"), or Western Songhay, is a member of the Songhay languages spoken in Mali by about 200,000 people (in 1999) along the Niger River in Timbuktu and upriver from it in the towns of Diré, Tonka, Gounda ...
and
Koyraboro Senni Koyraboro Senni (Koroboro Senni, Koyra Senni or Gao Senni) is a member of the Songhay languages of Mali and is spoken by some 400,000 people along the Niger River from the town of Gourma-Rharous, east of Timbuktu, through Bourem, Gao and Ansong ...
dialect. *many Fula migrated from the historical regions of Macina and
Fouta Toro Futa Toro ( Wolof and ff, Fuuta Tooro ''𞤆𞤵𞥄𞤼𞤢 𞤚𞤮𞥄𞤪𞤮''; ar, فوتا تورو), often simply the Futa, is a semidesert region around the middle run of the Senegal River. This region is along the border of Senegal an ...
to settle in Songhai country between Timbuktu Gao and Tillaberie, they adopted the
Koyra Chiini Koyra Chiini (, figuratively "town language"), or Western Songhay, is a member of the Songhay languages spoken in Mali by about 200,000 people (in 1999) along the Niger River in Timbuktu and upriver from it in the towns of Diré, Tonka, Gounda ...
and
Koyraboro Senni Koyraboro Senni (Koroboro Senni, Koyra Senni or Gao Senni) is a member of the Songhay languages of Mali and is spoken by some 400,000 people along the Niger River from the town of Gourma-Rharous, east of Timbuktu, through Bourem, Gao and Ansong ...
dialects of Songhay as their mother tongue and abandoned the Peulh language, adopted the culture of the central Sahara of the Songhay and Arab-Tuareg but kept pastoralism and the Fulani clan names, and set up in the Gourma powerful chiefdoms, the most important group are the Gabero whose name comes from the Songhay ''Gaw Bero'' (the big village ), name which was given to them by the
Arma people The Arma people are an ethnic group of the middle Niger River valley, descended from Moroccan invaders of the 16th century . The name, applied by other groups, derives from the word ''ar-rumah'' ( ar, الرماة) "fusiliers". N. Levtzion, "No ...
they are integrated into songhay koyraboro .They are established in large villages like Bazi, Hausa Fulane (fula from the right bank) with a social stratification similar to those of the Songhay, Tuareg and Arabs, the Tukulor occupation in Djenne and
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
also brought back to songhay country several Tukulor came tu fouta toro, others came from the
Sokoto caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the F ...
for studies. all these Fulani are linguistically and culturally integrated into Songhay . *The military expansions of the Gao Empire and Songhai Empire will bring the establishment of garrisons and songhai colony further in the lands of the right bank of the Niger river called Gourma or Aribinda on the lands of the Mandé ,
Dogon people The Dogon are an ethnic group indigenous to the central plateau region of Mali, in West Africa, south of the Niger bend, near the city of Bandiagara, and in Burkina Faso. The population numbers between 400,000 and 800,000. They speak the Dogon ...
and Gur peoples , The songhai people political entities will subjugate the region and create a province there, the Hombori, the city of
Hombori Hombori is a small town and rural commune in the Cercle of Douentza in the Mopti Region of Mali. The commune contains 25 villages and in the 2009 census had a population of 23,099. The town lies just to the north of the Hombori Tondo mesa on the ...
at the foot of the
Mount Hombori Mount Hombori (Hombori Tondo) is a mountain in Mali's Mopti Region, near the town of Hombori. At 1,155 meters, it is the highest point in Mali. Biodiversity Mount Hombori is an important location for biodiversity in the Sahel, with 150 diffe ...
(''Hombori tondo'' in songhai) will remain since the Songhai Empire the most important center of Songhai establishment on the right bank, the emperor askia Mohamed before are ascension will hold the position of ''Homborikoy'' governor of hombori province. from Hombori the Songhai will launch raids on the local Mandé and Gur populations, forcing many, including the Dogons to take refuge in the mountains, much safer to flee the Songhai slave hunters and escape the domination of the Gao emperors, with the fall from the Songhai Empire several princes of the Sunni dynasty and
Askiya dynasty The Askiya dynasty, also known as the Askia dynasty, ruled the Songhai Empire at the height of that state's power. It was founded in 1493 by Askia Mohammad I, a general of the Songhai Empire who usurped the Sonni dynasty. The Askiya ruled from Gao ...
will come With their suites this refugees in the region, hombori remains the Center of power in the gourma but several principalities will be established by the newcomers, the Songhai of hombori speak the Songhai dialect to call Humburi Senni , the city of hombori is known for its ancient architecture made up of old stone houses with maze-shaped streets and defensive purpose against Arab slave hunters. The Songhai of Hombori will swarm to the north of present-day Burkina Faso (
Sahel Region Sahel is one of Burkina Faso's 13 administrative regions. It was created on 2 July 2001. The region's capital is Dori. Four provinces make up the region—Oudalan, Séno, Soum, and Yagha. As of 2019, the population of the region was 1,094,9 ...
), where refusing to submit to the Mossi chief and moving each time With their spears of war, they will be named Marensés by the Mossi, which means 'those who refuse this submit to the chief', in the north of Burkina the towns and villages generally bear Songhai ( Gorom Gorom ,
Markoye Markoye is a town in northern Burkina Faso, in the province of Oudalan. It is the site of Burkina Faso’s coldest recorded temperature of . Economy There is a weekly cattle and camel market in the town and it is close to a manganese mine in Tam ...
..) names, during their stories in the region they are either in alliance or at war With the Tuaregs of
Oudalan Oudalan is one of the 45 provinces of Burkina Faso, located in its Sahel Region. Its capital is Gorom-Gorom. The 2019 census reported 158,146 people living in the province. Departments The province is divided into 5 departments. See also *Reg ...
, the Mossi kingdom, the
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
Emirate of Liptako, the Jelgodji who was subject to them before freeing themselves from them, the Songhai of Jelgodji have been largely absorbed by their former Fulani shepherds, they are neighbors of the Zarma of the Tera region and their dialects resemble each other, more to the west of hombori, Songhai populations settled at the foot of the gandamia massif and founded the village of
kikara Kikara ( Tondi Songway Kiini: ''Kî:rá''; Fulfulde: ''Kikkara'') is a small village and seat of the commune of Gandamia in the Cercle of Douentza in the Mopti Region of southern-central Mali. The village lies on the northern slope of the Gand ...
where they speak the
Tondi Songway Kiini Tondi Songway Kiini is a variety of Southern Songhai spoken in several villages in the area of Kikara, Mali, about 120 km west of Hombori. Westerners documented the existence of Tondi Songway Kiini in 1998. References *Jeffrey Heath Je ...
(the Songhai language of the mountains), the Songhai population is called tondisongway (Mountain Songhai). *A political conflict between the
Pasha Pasha, Pacha or Paşa ( ota, پاشا; tr, paşa; sq, Pashë; ar, باشا), in older works sometimes anglicized as bashaw, was a higher rank in the Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, generals, dignita ...
of
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
and the Spanish Arma garrison of the Kasbah of Bamba leads to a war between the Pasha Al Harir allied with the Tuareg Tademekat and the Bamba garrison allied with the Tuareg Oudalan, the Pasha is victorious in the Kasbah of Bamba and the garrison of bamba and their oudalan allies leave the loop of the Niger to settle in the Sahel region in the north of
Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana t ...
, the garrison is integrated as a tribe into the Tuareg imouchag of
Oudalan Oudalan is one of the 45 provinces of Burkina Faso, located in its Sahel Region. Its capital is Gorom-Gorom. The 2019 census reported 158,146 people living in the province. Departments The province is divided into 5 departments. See also *Reg ...
and has taken the name of ''alkasseybatan'' which means: those of the Kasbah, their descendants who have become
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
today continue to speak the Songhai dialect of Timbuktu as their mother tongue. *The western zaghe separated from the eastern zaghe began during the Songhai Empire a migration from their location in the dirma near
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
to the East under the leadership of the patriarch divided into 7 clans following conflict with other groups, they begin a pastoral migration which will bring them to the west of the current Republic of Niger, they are at the origin of the Zarma people and the idaksahak according to oral tradition, the Sambo patriarch is described as the ishak brother, the ancestors of the idaksahak, on their arrival they settled on the plateau which they baptized zarmaganda (the heart of the zarma) and found on the spot Songhai and non-Songhai clans which they assimilated, with the fall of the Songhai Empire, princes of songhai took refuge in the south and linked up with the zarmas, at the time of the clan zarmas separated from those of zarmaganda to occupy the various other parts of western Niger, the waazi occupied the plateau of zidji and founded the kingdom of Dosso, the sega where tobili occupies the valley of the boboye where they hunt the mossi of the East, the fahmey occupies the plateau of the fakara, the kogori and the namari occupy the valley of the river and call all the region zarmatarey( the country of the zarmas), he thus founded two groups of distinct principalities, the principalities of zarmaganda and the principalities of zarmatarey, the zarma groups of zarmaganda are called kalley and those of zarmatarey golley, each principality is led by a zarmakoy whose power is symbolized by a drum of wars called toubal. *After the seizure of power by Askya Mohamed, the deposed emperor sonni barou and his suite settled in the Dendi where they founded ayorou, joined by the Askya with the Moroccan invasion, they founded together several principalities (
Téra Téra is a city in the Tillabéri Region, Tera Department of Niger. It is situated 175 km north-west of the capital Niamey, close to the border with Burkina Faso. It is mainly inhabited by Songhai, Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe ...
,
Namaro Namaro is a village and rural commune in Niger.kokorou,
Dargol Dargol is a village and rural commune A commune is an alternative term for an intentional community. Commune or comună or comune or other derivations may also refer to: Administrative-territorial entities * Commune (administrative division), a ...
,
Sikié Sikié (also Sikièye, Sikiay, Sikiey ) is a Songhai town near Namaro in Niger. Sikié was the place where the defeated Songhai Empire army led by Askia Muhammed Gao installed their base hoping for a possible passage of the Moroccan army. Histo ...
, Gothèye, gorouol,
Karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively ...
.. ) in the right bank (gourma) on the plateau of liptako-Gourma in front of zarmaganda and zarmatarey that he will baptize sonhoy (
The Songhai The Songhai (also Songhay, Songhaytarey (), ()) is an area in the northwestern corner of Niger's Tillabéri Region populated mainly by the Songhai proper. It is considered the heartland of the Songhai people and the sanctuary of their ancient ...
) in memory of their fallen empire and call themselves sonhoyboro ( Songhai proper) he speaks
Songhoyboro Ciine Songhoyboro Ciine or Songhay Ciiné ( or ) is an upriver dialect of the southern Songhay dialect of Niger. It is spoken mostly in the northwestern corner of Niger's Tillaberi region, an area known as Songhay: from Gorouol, a border town with ...
dialects of zarma arrived in the gourma they found it occupied by the gourmantché whom they hunted for some, and assimilated by slavery or by neighborhood for others, it constitutes a subgroup of the zarma, because they also descend from za where zaghe, they are the political and military allies of their cousins of zarmatarey and zarmaganda during all the wars against the
Sokoto Empire The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the Fula ...
, the Tuareg confederations and during the zarma invasions on the voltaic plateau. *
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
clans from macina under the leadership of their leader Malick settled near the proper songhai of the river and assimilated linguistically and ethnically to them to form a new songhai sub-group called
Kurtey people The Kurtey people (var. Kourtey) are a small ethnic group found along the Niger River valley in parts of the West African nations of Niger, Benin, Mali, and Nigeria. They are also found in considerable numbers in Ghana, Togo, Ivory Coast, and Burki ...
, the name kurtey derives from songhai kuru (herd ) and teh (it is realizing), when the men returned from the war the women cried kurutey: the herd its realizing. the kourtey were born from the
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
and Songhai interbreeding, the kourtey generally live on the islands of the river and were once known for their raids on the neighboring populations, they arrived on the canoes to take away man, cattle,
gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile ...
. *the neighborhood between the Tuareg tribes of the river and the Songhai of the Sunni dynasty to bring an assimilation by interbreeding of several of these
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
clan to the Songhai from which they adopted the language and to develop their own dialect the wogo ciine and to form a subgroup of Songhai included among the zarma, the Wogo people , they occupy the islands of the river between tillaberie and gao, the largest islands are
Ayorou Ayourou (or Ayorou or Ayerou) is a town and rural commune in the Tillabéri Region, in western Niger.
(Niger) and Boura (Mali) some have spread to northern Nigeria at zaria kala kala * Upon their arrival in the west of present-day Niger, the western zaghe found the northern Hausa who are the kurfey, the gubey, the arawa in addition to the formerly established songhay groups, their arrival and dispersion on the plateaus of zarmaganda and zarmatarey with the establishment of powerful chiefdoms to cause a division in two of the Hausa of the north, a large part of them integrated into the zarma by joining them while keeping their own clan name, adopted the songhay dialect of the zarma, the culture and the political and social organization of the zarma, the kurfey assimilated to the zarma of zarmaganda adopt the name sudje which is the Songhay appellation of the kurfey, the arawa arrived on the banks of the river with their chief mawrikoy neyni assimilated to all the songhay groups and took the mawri name which is the songhay name of the arawa, it's the Maouri people , the gubey assimilated to the zarma waazi of dosso, kept their gubey name and also created a new country with principalities, the Songhay and the Hausa therefore share the Maouri people , Kurfey and Gubay groups. *The migration of the princes of the
Askiya dynasty The Askiya dynasty, also known as the Askia dynasty, ruled the Songhai Empire at the height of that state's power. It was founded in 1493 by Askia Mohammad I, a general of the Songhai Empire who usurped the Sonni dynasty. The Askiya ruled from Gao ...
after their defeats at tondibi and the conquest of songhai by the
Saadi Sultanate The Saadi Sultanate (also rendered in English as Sa'di, Sa'did, Sa'dian, or Saadian; ar, السعديون, translit=as-saʿdiyyūn) was a state which ruled present-day Morocco and parts of West Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was l ...
of
Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
to bring some of its princes further south to the southern tip of
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesBenin Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the nort ...
present on both banks of the Niger River where they met Gur populations such as the Tyenga and Hausa groups whom they assimilated and made them adopt Songhai as their language, the Songhai princes in alliance with the Kyenga people and Hausa established principalities in Gaya which remains the most important, in bana, in bengou, in tanda for the extreme south of Niger, certain princes crossed the river Niger for the extreme north of Benin where they established a powerful principality there as in Karimama on the lands of the Gur, from there begins with itinerant Muslim merchants and marabouts coming from these principalities a vast songhaysation and linguistic assimilation of the southern gur, the Bariba of the Borgou country, the northern yoruba, the Borgou Fula all Major cities of Bariba adopted the songhay variant of Dendi, Parakou the second largest city of Benin,
Djougou Djougou is the largest city in northwestern Benin. It is an important market town. The commune covers an area of 3,966 square kilometres and as of 2002 had a population of 181,895 people. Djougou is home to a constituent monarchy. General info ...
the capital of the Donga and its hinterland, Kandi capital of the Alibori and all the region are assimilated until that several cities change their name to adopt a Songhai name, the Songhai Islamizes all of northern Benin with the exception of Atacora, the entire Songhaised country is called Dendi (south), the Songhai of the region are called dendiboro
Dendi people The Dendi are an ethnic group located in Benin, Niger, Nigeria and northern Togo mainly in the plains of the Niger River. They are part of the Songhai people. Derived from the Songhay language, the term "Dendi" translates to "down the river." Th ...
, and the region develops a Songhai dialect, the Dendi language influenced by the Gur languages ,dendi is the lingua franca of northern and central Benin. *The Songhai invasions on the Voltaic plateau in the 19th century and the establishment of the
Zabarma Emirate The Zabarma Emirate was an Islamic state that existed from the 1860s to 1897 in what is today parts of Ghana and Burkina Faso. The leaders of the Zabarma Emirate, who belonged to the Zarma ethnicity from which the Emirate is named, originated in ...
led several Songhai to settle in the south of the Sahel among their Gur peoples subject, European colonization but an end to their military hegemony but not to their migration towards the south which still continues with the young Songhai who leave their regions of origin to trade towards the coast of the
Gulf of Guinea The Gulf of Guinea is the northeasternmost part of the tropical Atlantic Ocean from Cape Lopez in Gabon, north and west to Cape Palmas in Liberia. The intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian (zero degrees latitude and longitude) is i ...
after the agricultural season, this is what has led to the formation of several Songhai communities in the large cities of
Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and Tog ...
in Yendi,
Tamale A tamale, in Spanish tamal, is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of masa, a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaf. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tam ...
, Wa,
Kumasi Kumasi (historically spelled Comassie or Coomassie, usually spelled Kumase in Twi) is a city in the Ashanti Region, and is among the largest metropolitan areas in Ghana. Kumasi is located in a rain forest region near Lake Bosomtwe, and is t ...
,
Accra Accra (; tw, Nkran; dag, Ankara; gaa, Ga or ''Gaga'') is the capital and largest city of Ghana, located on the southern coast at the Gulf of Guinea, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean. As of 2021 census, the Accra Metropolitan District, , ...
... the same pattern is drawn in northern Nigeria where the descendants of the armies of the warriors of the zarmatarey allied to the
kebbi Emirate The Kebbi Emirate, also known as the Argungu Emirate is a traditional state based on the town of Argungu in Kebbi State, Nigeria. It is the successor to the ancient Hausa kingdom of Kebbi. The Emirate is one of four in Kebbi State, the others bei ...
against the
Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the F ...
, the descendants of the itinerant marabouts go to sokoto for Islamic studies, the descendants of the garrisons of the army of the itinerant marabout alfa shaybou resistant to
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
and Britannic colonization are installed, they live in several villages s and towns in the states of Kebbi, Sokoto,
Zamfara Zamfara (Hausa: Jihar Zamfara Fula: Leydi Zamfara 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤶𞤢𞤥𞤬𞤢𞤪𞤢) is a state in northwestern Nigeria. The capital of Zamfara state is Gusau and its current Governor is Bello Matawalle. Until 1996, the area was ...
,
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesYobe Yobe is a state located in northeastern Nigeria. A mainly agricultural state, it was created on 27 August 1991. Yobe State was carved out of Borno State. The capital of Yobe State is Damaturu; and it's largest and most populated city is Potisk ...
, Kano,
Kaduna Kaduna is the capital city of Kaduna State, and the former political capital of Northern Nigeria. It is located in north-western Nigeria, on the Kaduna River. It is a trade Centre and a major transportation hub as the gateway to northern Nige ...
and is around 1.5 million people. *Islamized from the 8th century by Arab traders who came to trade in their countries, the Songhai have since then been among the most active African peoples for the religious pilgrimage to
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow v ...
(from the Emperors to their peoples), the Askiya Mohamed 1st had built during his pilgrimage to Mecca places of accommodation for these citizens, many Songhai settled on the routes of the pilgrimage to Mecca, especially in the North East of present-day
Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
in the
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004 ...
where they form a community called ''zabarmawi'' , they are settled in their own villages but also in the big cities of the states of
Al Qadarif El-Gadarif ( ar, القضارف '), also spelt ''Gedaref'' or ''Gedarif'', is the capital of the state of Al Qadarif in Sudan. It lies on the road that connects Khartoum with Gallabat on the Ethiopian border, about from the capital. Overview ...
, Kassala,
Red Sea The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
,
Omdurman Omdurman (standard ar, أم درمان ''Umm Durmān'') is a city in Sudan. It is the most populated city in the country, and thus also in the State of Khartoum. Omdurman lies on the west bank of the River Nile, opposite and northwest of the ...
city and
Khartoum Khartoum or Khartum ( ; ar, الخرطوم, Al-Khurṭūm, din, Kaartuɔ̈m) is the capital of Sudan. With a population of 5,274,321, its metropolitan area is the largest in Sudan. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile, flowing n ...
in
Khartoum Khartoum or Khartum ( ; ar, الخرطوم, Al-Khurṭūm, din, Kaartuɔ̈m) is the capital of Sudan. With a population of 5,274,321, its metropolitan area is the largest in Sudan. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile, flowing n ...
, next to the Sudanese Arabs, the Beja, the
Nubian Nubian may refer to: *Something of, from, or related to Nubia, a region along the Nile river in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan. *Nubian people *Nubian languages *Anglo-Nubian goat, a breed of goat * Nubian ibex * , several ships of the Britis ...
with whom they are mixed and from which they have adopted many of their cultures while retaining a part of their own, if today the
Arabic language Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
has grown a lot in the community, the Zarma dialect my persists even if largely influenced by Sudanese Arabic and in decline With its abandonment by young people.


Northern Songhai People

Speakers of
Northern Songhay languages Northern Songhay is the smaller of the two branches of the Songhay languages. It is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in scattered oases of the Sahara. Languages The nomadic varieties include Tihishit in central Niger arou ...
(
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
,
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
) The northern group is primarily made up of nomadic camel herders and date palm cultivating oasis dwellers generally classified as ethnic Pastoralists
Berbers , image = File:Berber_flag.svg , caption = The Berber ethnic flag , population = 36 million , region1 = Morocco , pop1 = 14 million to 18 million , region2 = Algeria , pop2 ...
, but with genealogical ties to the southern group and the Za Dynasty , the northern group is part of the tribes that the
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
of the south call imazwaghan (the reds) and the Tuaregs of the north call them amamellan (the whites), the southern Songhai and the Tuareg tribes of the Aïr also call them iberkoreyan which means in songhai languages: white people, because of their white skin color, they are genetically and in physical appearance closer
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
Berbers, Near Eastern Semitic, some are Caucasian and white-skinned, it is not uncommon to find blue-eyed individuals among the Northern group.CM Benítez-Torres. ww.lingref.com/cpp/acal/38/paper2136.pdf Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphology in Tagdal: A Mixed LanguageIn Selected Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, ed. (2009) *The proto songhai group staying in the Aïr Mountains along the ighazer valley crossing the mountains and doing the cultivation of
date palm ''Phoenix dactylifera'', commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit called dates. The species is widely cultivated across northern Africa, the Middle Eas ...
will be joined in the 9th century by Messufa and
Zenata The Zenata ( Berber language: Iznaten) are a group of Amazigh (Berber) tribes, historically one of the largest Berber confederations along with the Sanhaja and Masmuda. Their lifestyle was either nomadic or semi-nomadic. Etymology ''Iznaten ( ...
Berbers , image = File:Berber_flag.svg , caption = The Berber ethnic flag , population = 36 million , region1 = Morocco , pop1 = 14 million to 18 million , region2 = Algeria , pop2 ...
tribes fleeing the
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
invasion of
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
and in the 14th and 15th century by Cherifian Arab tribes, the newcomers will mix with the Songhay population indigenous through marriages and it will be completely assimilated by the inhabitants of the oases, interbreeding will be at the origin of the Isawaghen people where
Ingalkoyyu people The Ingalkoyyu or Isawaghan people are a Northern Songhay ethnic group around In-Gall in Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages
speaking the tasawaq dialect of
Northern Songhay languages Northern Songhay is the smaller of the two branches of the Songhay languages. It is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in scattered oases of the Sahara. Languages The nomadic varieties include Tihishit in central Niger arou ...
, they are made up of several tribes, the ingalkoyyu imusufan tribes and imesdragen will constitute the kingdom of takkeda with azelik as capital, they will be joined in the region in the 15th century by Arab cherif and by Tuareg tribes from the powerful confederations of the North (
kel Ahaggar Kel Ahaggar ( Berber: ⴾⵍ ⵂⴴⵔ) (trans: "People of Ahaggar") is a Tuareg confederation inhabiting the Hoggar Mountains (Ahaggar mountains) in Algeria. The confederation is believed to have been founded by the Tuareg matriarch Tin Hinan, ...
and
kel Ajjer Kel Ajjer (also Kel Azjar, Kel Azjer) is a Tuareg confederation inhabiting western Libya and eastern Algeria. Their main stronghold was Ghat, followed by Ubari. The Kel Ajjer speak Tamahaq, or Northern Tuareg. See also * Azjar ** Kel Adagh **Kel A ...
) in
Ahaggar Mountains The Hoggar Mountains ( ar, جبال هقار, Berber: ''idurar n Ahaggar'') are a highland region in the central Sahara in southern Algeria, along the Tropic of Cancer. The mountains cover an area of approximately 550,000 km. Geography This ...
in ajjer and awdjila and at the base of the
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
kel Ayr Kel Ayr (also spelled Kel Aïr) was a semi-nomadic Tuareg tribal confederation. It ruled an area centered on the Aïr Mountains (Aïr Massif) in what is today Niger. Forming sometime after the 11th century CE, the Kel Ayr were one of the earlier T ...
, they also constitute the tribes which brought back the sultan of the Sultanate of Agadez of
Istanbul ) , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = 34000 to 34990 , area_code = +90 212 (European side) +90 216 (Asian side) , registration_plate = 34 , blank_name_sec2 = GeoTLD , blank_i ...
as a mediator of the tribes of the central Sahara, the ingalkoyyu isherifan founded the city of In-Gall in 1450 where they live until today with the other ingalkoyyu tribes but hold the chiefdom, they are also founder of the city of agadez, it is after the
Sultan Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it c ...
will move his course from associated with agadez, he also founded teguidda n tessemt, the ingalkoyyu tribe of the inemegrawene is composed of nomadic camel herders nomadic herders den in aggar, tamaya and the city of Agadez where they occupy the district of agazirbere, the dialect of the city Agadez was Emghedezie, a dialect of the Songhay languages ​​of the North that had disappeared, replaced by
Hausa language Hausa (; /; Ajami: ) is a Chadic language spoken by the Hausa people in the northern half of Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Benin and Togo, and the southern half of Niger, Chad and Sudan, with significant minorities in Ivory Coast. Hausa is a mem ...
as the majority language of the city in the 19th century. the ingalkoyyu are reinforced by the southern Songhai with a garrison left to Ingal by the emperor askia Mohamed during his pilgrimage to
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow v ...
, but completely absorbed by the natives, the ingalkoyyu are at the origin of the annual salt cure of the breeders of the
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
which is organized in ingal and hold the salines of teguida with the land of natron necessary for the livestock of the breeders, the ingalkoyyu are under the direct authority of the Sultan of Aïr Massif even if they have linked relations with the Tuareg
Iwellemmedan The Iwellemmedan (''Iwəlləmədǎn''), also spelled Iullemmeden, Aulliminden, Ouilliminden, Lullemmeden, and Iwellemmeden, are one of the seven major Tuareg tribal or clan confederations (called "''Drum groups''"). Their communities are histori ...
confederation and
Kel Ayr Kel Ayr (also spelled Kel Aïr) was a semi-nomadic Tuareg tribal confederation. It ruled an area centered on the Aïr Mountains (Aïr Massif) in what is today Niger. Forming sometime after the 11th century CE, the Kel Ayr were one of the earlier T ...
confederation, with the ruling tribes of kel nan, kel Fadey,
kel Ferwan The Kel Ferwan are a Tuareg nomadic clan, who have historically been a subgroup of the Kel Ayr confederation. In the 20th century, they have mostly been based in the Aïr Mountains of north central Niger ) , official_languages = , la ...
and
Kel Owey The Kel Awey (var. Kel Owi, Kel Ewey form ''People of the Bull'') are a Tuareg clan confederation. From the 18th century until the advent of French colonial rule at the beginning of the 20th century, they were a dominant power in the Aïr Mountains ...
it constitutes a group of Muslim clerics they call themselves ingalkoyyu which means : the ''masters of ingal'' in tesawaq, the Tuaregs call them isawaghen which means : ''those who protect'' . The main tribes are the isherifan , the imesdraghene , the imussufan , the inemegrawene and share the same cultures as the
Tuareg people The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
. *the Zenaga tribe from
Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
and the religious Arab groups having reached the Aïr massif before the 11th century settled in the Northern proto Songhai and intermixed with them, they will be linguistically assimilated by the Songhai to form the
Igdalen people The Igdalen (var.: Igdalan, Agdal) are a Berber people inhabiting northwestern Niger and parts of Mali and Algeria.Tagdal Tagdal (Tuareg name: ''Tagdalt'') is a mixed Northern Songhay language of central Niger. Ethnologue considers it a "mixed Berber–Songhay language", while other researchers consider it Northern Songhay. There are two dialects: Tagdal proper ...
, they constitute peaceful religious Islamic tribes of nomadic pastoralists and camel herders, they are divided into two large tribes the kel amdit and the kel tofey nomadic between the Aïr Massif , the damergou, the irhazer valley and the azawak around the towns of
Tanout Tanout is a town in southern Niger. It is in Zinder Region, Tanout Department, north of the city of Zinder. It is the administrative capital of Tanout Department. History Since 1987, the Eden Foundation, an NGO aiming at providing trees for "d ...
and
Tchintabaraden Tchintabaraden (var. Tchin-Tabaraden, Tchin Tabaraden) is a town and Communes of Niger, commune located in the Azawagh area of Niger, in the north of the Tahoua Region.It is the capital of the region's Tchintabaraden Department. It is the market ...
, they constitute the cleric tribes of the
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
confederations of the
kel Ayr Kel Ayr (also spelled Kel Aïr) was a semi-nomadic Tuareg tribal confederation. It ruled an area centered on the Aïr Mountains (Aïr Massif) in what is today Niger. Forming sometime after the 11th century CE, the Kel Ayr were one of the earlier T ...
(kel Fadey,
kel Ferwan The Kel Ferwan are a Tuareg nomadic clan, who have historically been a subgroup of the Kel Ayr confederation. In the 20th century, they have mostly been based in the Aïr Mountains of north central Niger ) , official_languages = , la ...
,
kel Owey The Kel Awey (var. Kel Owi, Kel Ewey form ''People of the Bull'') are a Tuareg clan confederation. From the 18th century until the advent of French colonial rule at the beginning of the 20th century, they were a dominant power in the Aïr Mountains ...
), aristocratic imezzurag tribes of the Zinder Region (tanout), ikherkheren of the
Iwellemmedan The Iwellemmedan (''Iwəlləmədǎn''), also spelled Iullemmeden, Aulliminden, Ouilliminden, Lullemmeden, and Iwellemmeden, are one of the seven major Tuareg tribal or clan confederations (called "''Drum groups''"). Their communities are histori ...
of ''tamesna'' , they are also present in Mali and Algeria.Edmond Bernus, Suzanne Bernus
Du sel et des dattes: introduction à l'étude de la communauté d'In Gall et de Tegidda-n-tesemt
''Etudes Nigeriennes'', 31. Centre nigérien de recherches en sciences humaines, 1972. OCLC 248836480 *According to the oral tradition of the songhai peoples ishak is the little brother of sambo patriarch of the western zaghe during their migration to the east and ancestors of the Zarma people , but in political disagreement with his brother he preferred to join the tuareg and these descendants were called Idaksahak people derives from idaw ishak (son of ishak), he would therefore also be a descendant of the Za Dynasty , the difference is reflected in the fact that they are white-skinned and the others descend from the za not, their origins should be sought among the Berber tribes of the North, and just as the igadalan would come from a
Berbers , image = File:Berber_flag.svg , caption = The Berber ethnic flag , population = 36 million , region1 = Morocco , pop1 = 14 million to 18 million , region2 = Algeria , pop2 ...
and proto songhai mixture this time if from the south, the researchers propose an origin from the Za Dynasty among the idaksahak, they constitute a set of pastoral nomadic tribe camel herders and religious cleric attached to the
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
Iwellemmedan The Iwellemmedan (''Iwəlləmədǎn''), also spelled Iullemmeden, Aulliminden, Ouilliminden, Lullemmeden, and Iwellemmeden, are one of the seven major Tuareg tribal or clan confederations (called "''Drum groups''"). Their communities are histori ...
from the west of the
Menaka Menaka () is an Apsara (heavenly nymph) in Hindu literature. Legends Menaka was born during the churning of the ocean by the devas and asuras. She is one of the most mesmerising apsaras (celestial nymphs) in the three worlds, with quick int ...
region, former guardian of the herds of the Tuareg high castes before colonization many did not p returned to the high caste their herds and preferred to keep them, they have the largest herd of camels in the central Sahara, they speak the Tadaksahak , Dialect of
Northern Songhay languages Northern Songhay is the smaller of the two branches of the Songhay languages. It is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in scattered oases of the Sahara. Languages The nomadic varieties include Tihishit in central Niger arou ...
, it is the group closest geographically to the southern Songhai with whom they live in the same region, they nomadize between the north of
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
, the south of
Algeria ) , image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Algiers , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , relig ...
and the north west of
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languages1963-64 rebellion , during the rebellion of 1990, they are at the base of secessionist organizations against the State of
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
for the creation of the State of Azawad for the populations of the North including the Popular Liberation Front of Azawad (1991-1993), National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (
Tuareg rebellion (2012) The Tuareg Rebellion of 2012 was an early stage of the Mali War; from January to April 2012, a war was waged against the Malian government by rebels with the goal of attaining independence for the northern region of Mali, known as Azawad. It w ...
and are engaged in Violent conflict With the Pastoralists
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
and are also in conflict with other
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
groups and the jihadists of the Sahel, the main tribes are the kel tabahaw (ruling clan), the kel abakot , isheriffen , ibawen , kel baryo, kel tesheden , iduguriten , kel azar, kel agayok . Even if being part of the Tuaregs and having the same culture as them, the idaksahak have always been distinguished from other
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
groups who generally have disdain for them, they proclaim their belonging to the songhai, unlike the igdalen who do not marry with the Tuareg the idaksahak marry the Tuaregs. The idaksahak are the richest tribe in the central
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
and it is not uncommon to find almost
blond Blond (male) or blonde (female), also referred to as fair hair, is a hair color characterized by low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin. The resultant visible hue depends on various factors, but always has some yellowish color. The color ...
individuals and blue-eyed people among them Edmond Bernus (ed.). Art of being Tuareg: Sahara nomads in a modern world. Indiana University Press (2006) p.291Jeffrey Heath. A grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali), Volume 35 of Mouton grammar library. Walter de Gruyter, (2005) p.9Catherine Taine-Cheikh. es langues parlées au sud Sahara et au nord Sahel http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00456346/ De l'Atlantique à l'Ennedi (Catalogue de l'exposition "Sahara-Sahel"), Centre Culturel Français d'Abidjan (Ed.) (1989) 155-173 *since the Gao Empire the bend of the Niger had established strong commercial links with the political entities of the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
and
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
, the marble used for the construction of the palace of Gao-Saney from the za dynasty comes from the site of Almeria in
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...
, which suggests relations between the Empire of Gao and the Emirate of Cordoba and
Caliphate of Cordoba A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
, Songhai caravan traders going to the ports of the Mediterranean make stopovers in the oases of the
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
to rest long journeys, a colony from gao settles in one of the oases of Western
Algeria ) , image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Algiers , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , relig ...
near
Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
to serve as a relay between the Niger valley and the Mediterranean. the songhai population of the oasis is joined by the Berber tribe of Ait isful branch of the Berber confederation of
Ait Atta An ait (, like ''eight'') or eyot () is a small island. It is especially used to refer to river islands found on the River Thames and its tributaries in England. Aits are typically formed by the deposit of sediment in the water, which ac ...
came from Jebel Saghru in the
Atlas Mountains The Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in the Maghreb in North Africa. It separates the Sahara Desert from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; the name "Atlantic" is derived from the mountain range. It stretches around through ...
in Morocco speaking
Tashelhit , now more usually known as Tashelhit , is a Berber language spoken in southwestern Morocco. The endonym is , and in recent English publications the name of the language is often rendered ''Tashelhit'', ''Tashelhiyt'' or ''Tashlhiyt''. In Morocc ...
and by the Arab tribes of the Rehemna or Ghenanma , by the Reguibat , the Berabiche and other groups, the interbreeding between the Songhai and these various tribes gives rise to the
Belbali people , image= , caption= , pop= , date= , ref= , region1= Tabelbala, Béchar Province , pop1= 3,000 (2010) , date1= , ref1= , region2= , pop2= , date2= , ref2= , region3= , pop3= , date3= , ref3= , region4= , pop4= , date4= , re ...
(kwarandzey : a citizens in korandje language similar to koroboro term, a name of other Songhai subgroup) whose dialect is Korandje which is part of the
Northern Songhay languages Northern Songhay is the smaller of the two branches of the Songhay languages. It is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in scattered oases of the Sahara. Languages The nomadic varieties include Tihishit in central Niger arou ...
with a strong influence of close
Berber languages The Berber languages, also known as the Amazigh languages or Tamazight,, ber, label=Tuareg Tifinagh, ⵜⵎⵣⵗⵜ, ) are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They comprise a group of closely related languages spoken by Berber commun ...
and
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
in the vocabulary, their oasis is called Tabelbala which means that of the Belbali, the oasis is flanked by three older fortified villages, or ksars: Cheraïa (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
: الشرايع, Ifrenyu in Korandje) to the west, Zaouia Sidi Zekri (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
: زاوية سيدي زكري, Kwara) and the tiny hamlet of Makhlouf (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
: مخلوف, Yami) to the east . The
Belbali people , image= , caption= , pop= , date= , ref= , region1= Tabelbala, Béchar Province , pop1= 3,000 (2010) , date1= , ref1= , region2= , pop2= , date2= , ref2= , region3= , pop3= , date3= , ref3= , region4= , pop4= , date4= , re ...
are mainly cultivators of
date palm ''Phoenix dactylifera'', commonly known as date or date palm, is a flowering plant species in the palm family, Arecaceae, cultivated for its edible sweet fruit called dates. The species is widely cultivated across northern Africa, the Middle Eas ...
by irrigation and livestock breeders (camels, goats, sheep), in the past the
oasis In ecology, an oasis (; ) is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environment'ksar''with its surrounding feeding source, the palm grove, within a relational and circulatory nomadic system.” The location of oases has been of critical imp ...
was under the power of the nomadic Arab tribe of the ouled hamroun even if each kasbah had its chief representative, Tabelbala is home to 7 giant tombs of revered saints, the oasis has known several revered Muslim scholars from Algeria to Morocco such as sidi zekri, a Cherif descendant of Fatima Zahra daughter of the prophet
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mon ...
, sidi brahim, Sidi Makhluf al-Balbali , sidi larbi and other, all buried in Tabelbala . From the 13th to the 19th century Tabelbala remains an important relay between
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
and Sidjilmasa, the city when it was taken was bombarded in 1908 by the French captain Martin because of the hostility of the Belbali to the French colonial conquest, especially the ksar de cheraya. The belbali are organized into tribes which are the ouled bouaza , ouled biri , ouled sidi Brahim , ouled belaciad , ouled sidi Larbi , Ait sful , Arib and chaamba , Significant numbers are also in the town of
Tindouf Tindouf (Berber: Tinduf, ar, تندوف) is the main town, and a commune in Tindouf Province, Algeria, close to the Mauritanian, Western Saharan and Moroccan borders. The commune has population of around 160,000 but the census and population ...


Society

The language, society and culture of the Songhai people is barely distinguishable from the Zarma people. Some scholars consider the Zarma people to be a part of and the largest ethnic sub-group of the Songhai. Some study the group together as Zarma-Songhai people. However, both groups see themselves as two different peoples.


Social stratification

The Songhai people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, like many West African ethnic groups with
caste Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultur ...
s. According to the medieval and colonial-era descriptions, their vocation is hereditary, and each stratified group has been endogamous. The social stratification has been unusual in two ways; it embedded slavery, wherein the lowest strata of the population inherited slavery, and the ''Zima'', or priests and Islamic clerics, had to be initiated but did not automatically inherit that profession, making the cleric strata a pseudo-caste. Louis Dumont, the 20th-century author famous for his classic ''Homo Hierarchicus'', recognized the social stratification among Zarma-Songhai people as well as other ethnic groups in West Africa, but suggested that sociologists should invent a new term for West African social stratification system. Other scholars consider this a bias and isolationist because the West African system shares all elements in Dumont's system, including economic, endogamous, ritual, religious, deemed polluting, segregative and spread over a large region. According to Anne Haour – a professor of African Studies, some scholars consider the historic caste-like social stratification in Zarma-Songhay people to be a pre-Islam feature while some consider it derived from the Arab influence. The different strata of the Songhai-Zarma people have included the kings and warriors, the scribes, the artisans, the weavers, the hunters, the fishermen, the leather workers and hairdressers (Wanzam), and the domestic slaves (Horso, Bannye). Each caste reveres its own guardian spirit. Some scholars such as John Shoup list these strata in three categories: free (chiefs, farmers, and herders), servile (artists, musicians and griots), and the slave class. The servile group was socially required to be endogamous, while the slaves could be emancipated over four generations. The highest social level, states Shoup, claim to have descended from King Sonni 'Ali Ber and their modern era hereditary occupation has been ''Sohance'' (sorcerer). Considered as being the true Songhai, the ''Sohance'', also known as '' Si Hamey'' are found primarily in
The Songhai The Songhai (also Songhay, Songhaytarey (), ()) is an area in the northwestern corner of Niger's Tillabéri Region populated mainly by the Songhai proper. It is considered the heartland of the Songhai people and the sanctuary of their ancient ...
in the Tillabery Region of
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesGao, the old seat of the Songhai Empire and much of
Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...
, one finds the Arma who are the descendants of the Moroccan invaders married to Songhai women. The traditionally free strata of the Songhai people have owned property and herds, and these have dominated the political system and governments during and after the French colonial rule. Within the stratified social system, the Islamic system of polygynous marriages is a norm, with preferred partners being cross cousins.Songhai people
Encyclopædia Britannica This endogamy within Songhai-Zarma people is similar to other ethnic groups in West Africa.


Livelihood

The Songhai people cultivate
cereal A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food ...
s and raise small herds of cattle and fish in the Niger Bend area where they live. They have traditionally been one of the key West African ethnic groups associated with caravan trade.


Royalty

royalty ( koytarey: possession ) among the songhai occupies a major place, from the
Emperors An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (empr ...
,
Sultan Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it c ...
and
Emir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
of the past centuries to the current regional king the chief is considered as a sacred person who must be listened to and obeyed . ; The chief Guarantor of traditions and the law Islamic he has to ensure the maintenance of the honor of these administrators, he directs a
country A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. It may be a sovereign state or make up one part of a larger state. For example, the country of Japan is an independent, sovereign state, whi ...
(laabu) or a
city A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...
(kwara) , he is the first responsible for military and societal affairs, he is the possessors and distributors of land and livestock , helping in these functions by these ministers and the religious cleric. the
King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, queen, which title is also given to the queen consort, consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contempora ...
(koy: the one who owns) is also the head of the occult and the first responsible against the guardian jinn of royalty (the ruling families generally rent the services of Muslim jinns to protect their dynasty from attack from the invisible) , he is the first responsible for military and societal affairs, he is the possessors and distributors of land and livestock , helping in these functions by these ministers and the religious cleric. the king (koy: the one who owns) is also the head of the occult and the first responsible against the guardian
jinn Jinn ( ar, , ') – also romanized as djinn or anglicized as genies (with the broader meaning of spirit or demon, depending on sources) – are invisible creatures in early pre-Islamic Arabian religious systems and later in Islamic ...
of royalty (the ruling families generally rent the services of Muslim jinns to protect their dynasty from attack from the invisible) ; Eligibility The leaders among the songhai are always of the highest caste and must be of the founding lineage of the kingdom where of the dynasty by paternal
ancestry An ancestor, also known as a forefather, fore-elder or a forebear, is a parent or ( recursively) the parent of an antecedent (i.e., a grandparent, great-grandparent, great-great-grandparent and so forth). ''Ancestor'' is "any person from w ...
, he is elected by an electoral college formed by the heads of the great houses of the kingdom or of the city and by the religious leaders, in the event of incompetence or of major military defeat he can be dismissed by the advice and force into exile . in zarmatarey the clan responsible for organizing the election of the king is called saabir and their chief the sandi is responsible for the
coronation A coronation is the act of placement or bestowal of a crown upon a monarch's head. The term also generally refers not only to the physical crowning but to the whole ceremony wherein the act of crowning occurs, along with the presentation of o ...
. ; Symbols of royalty - The
Turban A turban (from Persian دولبند‌, ''dulband''; via Middle French ''turbant'') is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by people of various cultures. Communities with promin ...
represents authority and nobility among the Songhai and is used for coronations, the king during his election is turbaned by the cadi or the sandi by a turban which is generally white or black dyed with indigo and chooses for the occasion . the Songhai emperors besides the turban had a crown in the shape of a helmet and a beak. - The
royal Royal may refer to: People * Royal (name), a list of people with either the surname or given name * A member of a royal family Places United States * Royal, Arkansas, an unincorporated community * Royal, Illinois, a village * Royal, Iowa, a ...
War drum called Tubale represents the central symbol of royal authority among the Songhai , only the great chiefs have it, it is made of a large
bowl A bowl is a typically round dish or container generally used for preparing, serving, or consuming food. The interior of a bowl is characteristically shaped like a spherical cap, with the edges and the bottom forming a seamless curve. This makes ...
dug into the trunk of a tree, the bowl is covered with a cowhide and inside
talismans A talisman is any object ascribed with religious or magical powers intended to protect, heal, or harm individuals for whom they are made. Talismans are often portable objects carried on someone in a variety of ways, but can also be installed perm ...
are put, cowhide beaters are used to hit it , it is hit by the
Craftsmen Craftsman may refer to: A profession *Artisan, a skilled manual worker who makes items that may be functional or strictly decorative *Master craftsman, an artisan who has achieved such a standard that he may establish his own workshop and take o ...
caste (garaasa) to announce a war , the coronation of a king , the death of a king and is also struck at feasts. He who possesses the tubal with full power. It is struck motionless to pose on a stand , or on a
Camel A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
during travel by the chief of the craftsmen who is himself seated on a neighboring camel. the most famous is the Sombokaane tubal , made of a
gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile ...
Bowl A bowl is a typically round dish or container generally used for preparing, serving, or consuming food. The interior of a bowl is characteristically shaped like a spherical cap, with the edges and the bottom forming a seamless curve. This makes ...
and having belonged to several emperors and kings of the past, it was according to legend brought back from Yemen by za the great (za el ayamen) founder of the Za dynasty , lost during a war, find , it was in the possession of Sunni Ali Ber during his reign and was lost after his death , it is found and was in the possession of the patriarchs of the western za during their migration to the East and kept by the Zarmakoy of zarmaganda , it is stolen by the queen of zarmatarey by trickery and will be in the possession of the
Royal House A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,''Oxford English Dictionary'', "dynasty, ''n''." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A ...
of the waazi (kingdom of Dosso) who will also lose it during a war (fall into a well according to the legend) to no longer be found until today , its stories are similar to those of the
Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant,; Ge'ez: also known as the Ark of the Testimony or the Ark of God, is an alleged artifact believed to be the most sacred relic of the Israelites, which is described as a wooden chest, covered in pure gold, with an ...
of the
Hebrews The terms ''Hebrews'' (Hebrew: / , Modern: ' / ', Tiberian: ' / '; ISO 259-3: ' / ') and ''Hebrew people'' are mostly considered synonymous with the Semitic-speaking Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still ...
and like the Ark of the Covenant it guarantees a sure military victory to whoever has it, the Royal war drums also exists among the Tuaregs who call it Ettebel , among the Northern Hausa who call it Tambari, among the
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
and the Arabs too, it is specific to populations of Sahelian culture. - The large decorated white Boubou, the decorated kaftan and the leather shoes. -the silver bow and the thoroughbred horse -the long royal trumpets call algayta - The royal parasol - The upholstered wooden
throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the mon ...
- a
Sword A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed ti ...
, a
Spear A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastene ...
and a
Scepter A sceptre is a staff or wand held in the hand by a ruling monarch as an item of royal or imperial insignia. Figuratively, it means royal or imperial authority or sovereignty. Antiquity Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia The '' Was'' and other ...
. among nomadic groups a large tent of red skins and finely crafted furniture is offered to the chief.


Songhay chief titles

-koy designates any person who has authority . -bonkoyni designates the
king King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen regnant, queen, which title is also given to the queen consort, consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contempora ...
. -laabu koy designates the dear of the country . ;Old Imperial titles - za , zaghe , zaghay of Za dynasty - Sonni - Askiya - Amenokal of Takedda - wangugnya (mother of war) a marechal during wangarey zamano ( era of warrior) ; Post Imperial titles - Al kaydo (
Caïd Qaid ( ar , قائد ', "commander"; pl. '), also spelled kaid or caïd, is a word meaning "commander" or "leader." It was a title in the Norman kingdom of Sicily, applied to palatine officials and members of the ''curia'', usually to those w ...
) - paasha(
Pasha Pasha, Pacha or Paşa ( ota, پاشا; tr, paşa; sq, Pashë; ar, باشا), in older works sometimes anglicized as bashaw, was a higher rank in the Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, generals, dignita ...
) - Zarmakoy - Gabdakoy - Mawrikoy - Gubekoy - Amiiru (
Emir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
) - wonkoy - Mayaaci - zaarumay - Amghar -
Sultan Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it c ...
- kwarakoy


Military

Songhai military organization and tactics enabled the Songhai Empire to conquer nearly all of
West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali ...
, along with parts of
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
and
Central Africa Central Africa is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Angola, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Co ...
. The Songhai Empire remains one of the largest contiguous land empire with the conquests of the
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or Manden; ar, مالي, Māl ...
, Jolof Empire ,
Empire of Great Fulo The Empire of Great Fulo, also known as the Denanke Kingdom or Denianke Kingdom, was a Pulaar kingdom of Senegal, which dominated the Futa Tooro region. Its population dominated its neighbors through use of cavalry and fought wars against the M ...
, Hausa Kingdoms, sultanate of Agadez, Takedda,
Nomadic people A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...
and many other Kingdom. The military power of the Songhai armies lies in their excellent mastery of the waterways and the fights on the water and also in their mastery of the
Horse The horse (''Equus ferus caballus'') is a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal. It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of ''Equus ferus''. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million yea ...
and
Camel A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
.


Organization

A Songhai army is organized in symmetry with the very hierarchical Songhai society, it revolves around the Tubal (war drum) symbol of authority. The Songhai Empire and the era of the wangari of the 19th century were periods of strong militarization that the Songhai experienced under the aegis of a strategist of which Sunni Ali remains the greatest, each period had an organization depending on its field of activity. action but was not very different from each other, it was always a cavalry constituted with a majority of ethnic Songhai in front of an infantry formed by the conquered peoples and the slaves, helped by the allies or the vassals (typical organization of Songhai Empire and
Zabarma Emirate The Zabarma Emirate was an Islamic state that existed from the 1860s to 1897 in what is today parts of Ghana and Burkina Faso. The leaders of the Zabarma Emirate, who belonged to the Zarma ethnicity from which the Emirate is named, originated in ...
). only Issa korombé had an army mainly formed of zarma riders and extremely structured in a garrison town ramifications held by lieutenants under the orders of the general of a military region. * Songhai Empire the Songhai Empire had a larger scale organization. the Songhai Empire included three permanent army corps, each stationed in one of the three central provinces of the empire and branched into several garrisons, * The kurmina army corps (Timbuktu-djenné) stationed in the west east region led by the Balama, minister of defense of the emperor. The balama in the surveillance of all the western provinces up to the
Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...
( Mandé,
senegambia The Senegambia (other names: Senegambia region or Senegambian zone,Barry, Boubacar, ''Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade'', (Editors: David Anderson, Carolyn Brown; trans. Ayi Kwei Armah; contributors: David Anderson, American Council of Le ...
) where the revolts are frequent and he is responsible for deploying forces there and putting down the revolts. * The army corps of the central province of Gao is under the direct orders of the emperor, the emperor is seconded in his central province by the surgukoy in the north in charge of the Berber contingent and the surveillance of the
Maghreb The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
, the Tondi farma of the hombori in charge of the surveillance of the Mossi province. * The army corps of the eastern province called Dendi is under the orders of Dendi Fari, the provincial governor, the dendi fari supervises the ayar and the Hausa states . The Hi, the fleet of the empire is under the command of Hi koy the admiral who is also Minister of the Interior, he has commanders under his orders attached to the ports of the central provinces and acting in tandem with the provincial army has where they are attached . The provincial governors are followed by generals the jinakoy themselves followed by lieutenants holding garrison towns, the vassals are obliged to support the army corps which concerns them, each unit is organized and includes a wonkoy military chief of regiment, a gukoy chief of the cavalry, a Tongofarma chief of the mounted archers, in the event of war they are gathered under the command of a higher rank. In time of campaign the province which is in the direction of the region concerned priority to organize these troops, the army corps of the central province is always mobilized when the emperor goes to war, in all the Songhai empire with three mobilizable armies. *zarmatarey of wangaari


Naval Force

The expansion of the Songhai Empire is due to the reform brought in the army of the
Kingdom of Gao The Gao Empire preceded the Songhai Empire in the region of the Middle Niger. It owes its name to the town of Gao located at the eastern Niger bend. In the ninth century CE, it was considered to be the most powerful West African kingdom. Gao was f ...
by Sunni Ali Ber during his ascension to the throne , he built more than 400
Ships A ship is a large watercraft that travels the world's oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers, or in support of specialized missions, such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally distinguished ...
and created the position of
Admiral Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies. In the Commonwealth nations and the United States, a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet ...
, the Hikoy , these ships were carried out by crews of Sorko fishermen , they were the centerpiece of the conquests of Sunni Ali , they were capable of transporting large numbers of soldiers over thousands of kilometers of waterway allowing them to besiege and conquer the islands and the cities bordering the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mal ...
. The Tarikh al-Fattash mentions 1000 ships belonging to the Askiya during a census carried out. .


Cavalry

*The horse occupies a major place in the Songhai armies , the Songhai country is also known to be called the country of war horses . The cavalry is called Gu (mounted gathering ) in the Songhay language , the war horse bari-gu and the commander-in-chief of the cavalry is called gukoy , post generally entrusted to the prince dauphin or to the warrior of confidence of the sovereign but necessarily of noble ancestry . Sunni Ali ber reforms the Songhai
Cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry in ...
by developing and importing new breeds of horses , including the bagzane , the songhai horse and extends its territory over more than 1.4 million km , askya Mohamed and the following emperors in their use to extend the empire, the possession of the horse goes hand in hand with war and in the songhai language the warrior is called wangaari the saddle man and the rider barikar the driver of the horse , issa korombé had used an army made up solely of horsemen to defeat the
Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the F ...
, he loses more than 5000 horses during his defeat of bumba . Babatu dominates the voltaic plateau thanks to his great cavalry. The horses of the kingdom of dosso are generally covered with padded protection whose riders wear helmets topped with ostrich feathers . The cavalry mainly comprised Songhai nobles, but some slaves who had shown loyalty to their masters and courage in battle could also integrate it until they reached high rank in the Songhai armies. * The
Camel cavalry Camel cavalry, or camelry (french: méharistes, ), is a generic designation for armed forces using camels as a means of transportation. Sometimes warriors or soldiers of this type also fought from camel-back with spears, bows or rifles. Camel ...
occupied an important place in the songhai armies , it was used on the desert lands of the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
and the
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
, recruitment was done by military conscription in the
Berber Berber or Berbers may refer to: Ethnic group * Berbers, an ethnic group native to Northern Africa * Berber languages, a family of Afro-Asiatic languages Places * Berber, Sudan, a town on the Nile People with the surname * Ady Berber (1913–19 ...
kingdoms of the north conquered and submitted by the songhai ( kingdom of tademekkat, Takedda , Sultanate of Agadez ) , the berbers knowing better the sahara and these tracks , the command of the company was ensured by the surgukoy , chief of the berbers and governor of the provinces of the sahara . the company is used by emperor
Askia Ishaq I Askia Ishaq I was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1539 to 1549, elected Askia following the death of Askia Isma'il. He was the fifth ruler of the Askiya dynasty which had the town of Gao as its capital. Ascension to the throne When Askia I ...
to punish the sultan of the
Saadi Dynasty The Saadi Sultanate (also rendered in English as Sa'di, Sa'did, Sa'dian, or Saadian; ar, السعديون, translit=as-saʿdiyyūn) was a state which ruled present-day Morocco and parts of West Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was l ...
of
Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
Muhammad Al-Arak for his attempted invasion of the saltworks of Teghaza in 1544 belonging to the emperor, the company (2000 mounted men) plunders southern Morocco the Dara Valley , the tafilalet and forced the sultan to flee his capital
Marrakech Marrakesh or Marrakech ( or ; ar, مراكش, murrākuš, ; ber, ⵎⵕⵕⴰⴽⵛ, translit=mṛṛakc}) is the fourth largest city in the Kingdom of Morocco. It is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrakes ...
, . 311 years after issa korombé reconstitutes a
Camel cavalry Camel cavalry, or camelry (french: méharistes, ), is a generic designation for armed forces using camels as a means of transportation. Sometimes warriors or soldiers of this type also fought from camel-back with spears, bows or rifles. Camel ...
to fight the Tuareg of tagazart and the iwillimiden, it assures him of a victory over them at the battles of mbama and leleh in 1855.


Infantry and archers

It constitutes the military branch of the mass of slaves that the songhai possessed, it was either to integrate it or to be sold as slaves , those who showed courage could be freed and join the cavalry, this policy was to be used by all predatory entities founded by the Songhai, the songhai being demographically small they kept the cavalry and integrated the peoples subject to their infantry, the
Askia Ishak II Askia Ishaq II was ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1588 to 1591. Ishaq came to power in a long dynastic struggle following the death of the long-ruling Askia Daoud. Sensing the Empire's weakness, Moroccan Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi dispatch ...
opposed 9,700 (30.000 in other sources) infantry to the Moroccan army and it was only those of the province Central Gao during
Battle of Tondibi The Battle of Tondibi was the decisive confrontation in the 16th-century invasion of the Songhai Empire by the army of the Saadi dynasty in Morocco. Though vastly outnumbered, the Moroccan forces under Judar Pasha defeated the Songhai Askia ...
. They were mostly armed with spears, antelope skin shield and sword. The Mounted archers occupy an important place in the armies and are the prerogative of the Songhai castes of the gaw where hunter and their skills have earned the Songhai decisive victories , they flooded the enemy cities with their poisoned arrows. the Tukulor invasion army commanded by the son of El hadj Omar Saidou Tall and armed with rifles is decimated by the Songhai army of the emir of dargol and issa korombé consisting solely of archers during the battle of dambou Beri at the end of the 19th century , and chased the Toucouleur from Songhai territories.


Animals of terror

Sunni Ali Ber and Babatu are the Songhay rulers who most used the means of terror in their conquest. Two animals were mainly used: - the great scavenger
Vultures A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture (including Condors). Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and ...
, considered by the ancient Songhai as the symbol of war, the spirit of war among the Songhai is Kaguta , the great White vulture . Sunni Ali ber and babatu had raised in their various camps entire squadrons of vultures to strike fear in the hearts of enemy peoples, they accompanied the columns of the Songhai armies and had the mission of cleaning up the battlefields, it was not rare that prisoners are given to them as food when the military campaigns ceased. Songhai traditions said of Sunni Ali ber that he himself had the magic gift of transforming himself into a vulture and transforming his horse into a vulture to watch over his immense empire. - The second animal used by the Songhai armies is the ox, the
Bulls Bulls may refer to: *The plural of bull, an adult male bovine *Bulls, New Zealand, a small town in the Rangitikei District Sports *Bucking bull, used in the sport of bull riding * Bulls (rugby union), a South African rugby union franchise operated ...
with the largest sizes and the longest horns are carefully chosen to integrate the herds of the imperial army, they are only dedicated to a military purpose and are therefore not not slaughtered for consumption, they are fed during the campaign with doping herbs which make them furious, they are entrusted to shepherds and precede the infantry and the cavalry.


Culture

The Songhai being Sahelosaharians they share a broad culture in common with their immediate Sahelian neighbors who are the
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
with whom they have the most cultural affinity, then the
Arabs The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
of the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
and the
Maghreb The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
followed by the Hausa, the
Fula people The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region ...
and others Sahelian group both
Afro-Asiatic The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic s ...
and
Nilo-Saharan The Nilo-Saharan languages are a proposed family of African languages spoken by some 50–60 million people, mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers, including historic Nubia, north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. ...
, to the east in
Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
they have adopted several cultural characteristics from the Sudanese
Arabs The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
, Nubians and Beja people.


Economy

The proto-Songhay (
Nilo-Saharan The Nilo-Saharan languages are a proposed family of African languages spoken by some 50–60 million people, mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers, including historic Nubia, north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. ...
or
Afro-asiatic The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, Erythraean or Lisramic, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic s ...
pastoralists of Neolithic) who migrated in the
4th millennium BC The 4th millennium BC spanned the years 4000 BC to 3001 BC. Some of the major changes in human culture during this time included the beginning of the Bronze Age and the invention of writing, which played a major role in starting recorded history. ...
from
North East Africa Northeast Africa, or ''Northeastern Africa'' or Northern East Africa as it was known in the past, is a geographic regional term used to refer to the countries of Africa situated in and around the Red Sea. The region is intermediate between North ...
(
Nile Valley The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered the longest riv ...
) to the central
Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...
( Aïr Mountains) were essentially nomadic pastoralists. Their settled descendants are partly farmers, breeders, traders, caravanners, fishermen, hunters, sedentary craftsmen occupying large historic cities and large villages and for another part nomadic herders camel breeders in the immensities of the Sahara and living in nomadic tents.


Agricultural activities

Agriculture is the primary activity of the Songhai populations. As they live in arid and semi-arid areas the agriculture is seasonal. The rainy season in the
Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid cli ...
extends over three months, compared to eight to nine dry months. Irrigation is widely practiced near the river and in the oases. The Songhai mainly cultivate cereals; their most produced crop is
millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets a ...
, followed by
rice Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and '' Porteresia'', both wild and domesticat ...
grown on the banks of the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mal ...
, then
wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
and
sorghum ''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many other ...
. As elsewhere in the central Sahel,
corn Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The ...
is grown less. Cereals that grow wild are also picked in season, such as panicum leatum or wild fonio. Other crops widely cultivated by the Songhai are
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
, onions,
spices A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices are ...
,
tubers Tubers are a type of enlarged structure used as storage organs for nutrients in some plants. They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of the winter or dry months), to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing s ...
and
moringa Moringa may refer to: * ''Moringa'' (genus), a genus of plants * ''Moringa oleifera'', or just moringa, a plant species native to the Indian subcontinent * ''Moringa stenopetala ''Moringa stenopetala'', commonly known as the African Moringa or ...
. Date palms are cultivated by irrigation in the oases of the Sahara, e.g.
Tindouf Tindouf (Berber: Tinduf, ar, تندوف) is the main town, and a commune in Tindouf Province, Algeria, close to the Mauritanian, Western Saharan and Moroccan borders. The commune has population of around 160,000 but the census and population ...
, Tabalbala and Ingal.
Mango A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree '' Mangifera indica''. It is believed to have originated in the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. ''M. indica'' has been cultivated in Sout ...
is the most widely produced fruit, followed by oranges, watermelons,
melon A melon is any of various plants of the family Cucurbitaceae with sweet, edible, and fleshy fruit. The word "melon" can refer to either the plant or specifically to the fruit. Botanically, a melon is a kind of berry, specifically a "pepo". T ...
s and gourds. The Songhai practice agriculture with
plow A plough or plow ( US; both ) is a farm tool for loosening or turning the soil before sowing seed or planting. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by oxen and horses, but in modern farms are drawn by tractors. A plough may have a wooden, iron or ...
s pulled by oxen. Unlike the
Hausa people The Hausa (Endonym, autonyms for singular: Bahaushe (male, m), Bahaushiya (female, f); plural: Hausawa and general: Hausa; exonyms: Ausa; Ajami script, Ajami: ) are the largest native ethnic group in Africa. They speak the Hausa language, which ...
, who mainly use the daba to cultivate, the Songhai more commonly use the hilar, the hoe, and the pitchfork. In precolonial times, before the abolition of slavery by the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
in the Sahel, the Songhai employed hundreds or even thousands of servile labor razzier. Following modernization agricultural equipment such as tractors and
combine harvesters The modern combine harvester, or simply combine, is a versatile machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of grain crops. The name derives from its combining four separate harvesting operations— reaping, threshing, gathering, and winn ...
is widely used. Agricultural workers known as ''boogou'' are organized to help farmers with less labor. After the harvest the Songhai leave their fields to the
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people ( ff, Fulɓe, ; french: Peul, links=no; ha, Fulani or Hilani; pt, Fula, links=no; wo, Pël; bm, Fulaw) are one of the largest ethnic groups in the Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. ...
and
Tuareg The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym: ''Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Al ...
herders so that their cattle clean the fields; Songhai who have large herds let their own cattle clean the fields.


Animal husbandry

The Songhai practice animal husbandry according to their way of life. The people settled in and around villages raise mainly
cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ...
,
goats The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of th ...
(especially the Sahelian breed),
sheep Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticate ...
,
poultry Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, qu ...
(especially guinea fowl), and donkeys Camels are raised for travel and also consumption, especially in the zarmaganda, in Gao and
Timbuktu Timbuktu ( ; french: Tombouctou; Koyra Chiini: ); tmh, label=Tuareg, script=Tfng, ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, Tin Buqt a city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrativ ...
. Nomadic
idaksahak The Dawsahak people, ''Idaksahak'' (var.: ''Daoussahak'',Edmond Bernus (ed.). Art of being Tuareg: Sahara nomads in a modern world. Indiana University Press (2006) p.291Jeffrey Heath. A grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali), Volume 35 of Mouton gra ...
and igdalen pastoralists breed large livestock. The families of breeders travel the valleys of the azawakh, the azgueret, the irhazer, the tilemsi, the banks gourma of the river and the foothills of the mountains of Aïr and Adrar of the iforas. Their herds are primarily constituted of camels, but they also herd goats, sheep and oxen. They live in tents and eat mainly dairy products. The horse is a central element of Songhai society. The Songhai country is widely known as the land of horses, and the Songhai have developed their own breeds of horses: the djerma is a cross between the Dongola and the
barb Barb or the BARBs or ''variation'' may refer to: People * Barb (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or surname * Barb, a term used by fans of Nicki Minaj to refer to themselves * The Barbs, a band Places * Barb, ...
, raised along the Niger River; and the Bagzan from the Aïr Mountain, which is prized for war. The
Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesZa el-Ayamen or zaber ( za the great) or zabarkhane ancestors of Songhai, founder of the Za dynasty and the Gao Empire, originally from
southern Arabia South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'Asi ...
according to the tarikh, probably from the
kingdom of Axum The Kingdom of Aksum ( gez, መንግሥተ አክሱም, ), also known as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was a kingdom centered in Northeast Africa and South Arabia from Classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. Based primarily in wh ...
and belonging to the ethiosemitic ethnic groups . *Za kosto Moslem Dem: first king of the Gao Empire to formalize
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
as the state religion in the year 1009. *
Sonni Ali Ber Sunni Ali, also known as Si Ali, Sunni Ali Ber (Ber meaning "the Great"), was born in Ali Kolon. He reigned from about 1464 to 1492. Sunni Ali was the first king of the Songhai Empire, located in Africa and the 15th ruler of the Sunni dynasty. ...
: 1st Emperor of Songhai empire * Sonni Baru: emperor of Songhai empire *
Askia Muhammad Askia Muhammad (March, 1945 – February 17, 2022) born Charles K. Moreland at Yazoo, Mississippi was an American poet, journalist, radio producer, commentator, and photojournalist. He was awarded multiple times by the National Association of Blac ...
: founder of Askia dynasty, Emperor of Songhai empire *
Askiya Musa Askia Musa or Askiya Musa (ruled 1529–1531) was the second Askia ruler of the Songhai Empire. Towards the end of his reign, Askia Mohammad had become increasingly dependent on Ali Fulan, the Hugu-koray-koi (Master of the Palace interior) ...
: emperor of Songhai empire * Askia Mohammad Benkan: emperor of Songhai empire * Askiya Isma'il: emperor of Songhai empire * Askiya ishaq I: emperor of Songhai empire *
Askiya Dawud Askia Daoud (also Askia Dāwūd, Askiya Dawud) was the ruler of the Songhai Empire from 1549 to 1582. Daoud came to power unopposed following the death of his brother Askia Ishaq I in 1549. The Empire continued to expand under Daoud's peaceful rul ...
: emperor of Songhai empire * Askiya Mohammad El haj: emperor of Songhai empire * Askiya Muhammad Bani: emperor of Songhai empire * Askiya Ishaq II: emperor of Songhai empire * Zarmakoy Sambo : zarma migration patriarch and ancestors of zarma people a Songhai people subgroup. * Ishak bolombooti: ancestors of nomadic
idaksahak The Dawsahak people, ''Idaksahak'' (var.: ''Daoussahak'',Edmond Bernus (ed.). Art of being Tuareg: Sahara nomads in a modern world. Indiana University Press (2006) p.291Jeffrey Heath. A grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali), Volume 35 of Mouton gra ...
Songhai speakers, and brother of zarmakoy Sambo according oral traditions. *Za arsiyaye : zarma patriarch *Za khaman duksa: zarma patriarch *Za armaley : zarma patriarch * Zarmakoy taguru : great zarma monarch and patriarch * Yefarma ishak : military leader having defeated the Moroccan army and stopping its southern advance * Issa korombeyzey Moodi: or wangunya Issa (Issa the mother of war) military leader, marshal (wangugna) of the boboye having defeated the
sokoto caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the F ...
and stopping its northern advance. * Hama bugaran or hamam bakara : military leader of the zidji plateau having defeated the caliphate of sokoto * Dawda bugaran : military leader of zidji plateau having defeated the caliphate of sokoto and gwandu, and zarmakoy of Dosso kingdom * Gabeylingah Hama kassa: military leader of liptako gourma plateau. *Alfa hano : itinerant Muslim monk, military chief, 1st emir and founder of the
zabarma Emirate The Zabarma Emirate was an Islamic state that existed from the 1860s to 1897 in what is today parts of Ghana and Burkina Faso. The leaders of the Zabarma Emirate, who belonged to the Zarma ethnicity from which the Emirate is named, originated in ...
. * Gazari : horse Herder and traders, military chief, 2nd Emir of
zabarma Emirate The Zabarma Emirate was an Islamic state that existed from the 1860s to 1897 in what is today parts of Ghana and Burkina Faso. The leaders of the Zabarma Emirate, who belonged to the Zarma ethnicity from which the Emirate is named, originated in ...
* Babatu: Horse Herder and traders, slave raiders, military leader, 3rd Emir of
zabarma Emirate The Zabarma Emirate was an Islamic state that existed from the 1860s to 1897 in what is today parts of Ghana and Burkina Faso. The leaders of the Zabarma Emirate, who belonged to the Zarma ethnicity from which the Emirate is named, originated in ...
, founder of the garrison town of kasena, defeated by
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
colonial armies in Togo, by the British in Ghana and by the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
in Burkina Faso, his empire collapsed. * Zarmakoy Attiku : king of Dosso, defeated the Tukulor armies and killed Ali Buri Ndayaye last king of kingdom of jolof . * Alfa chayib : itinerant blind Muslim monk, resisting against colonization in Niger, he declares jihad to the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
and the British, he galvanizes the sultan of
sultanate of Damagaram The Sultanate of Damagaram was a Muslim pre-colonial state in what is now southeastern Niger, centered on the city of Zinder. History Rise The Sultanate of Damagaram was founded in 1731 (near Mirriah, modern Niger) by Muslim Kanouri ar ...
and the sultan of
sokoto caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the F ...
to revolt.


See also

* Zarma people * Zin Kibaru * Songhai proper


References


Primary sources

* , translated in *, translated in


Bibliography

* *. * . *. * *. Also available fro
Aluka
but requires subscription. * *. *. Link is to a scan on the Persée database that omits some photographs of the epigraphs. *. *. * {{Use dmy dates, date=April 2017