Sir Robert Hart, 1st Baronet, (20 February 1835 – 20 September 1911) was a British diplomat and official in the

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

Chinese government, serving as the second Inspector-General of China's Imperial Maritime Custom Service (IMCS) from 1863 to 1911. Beginning as a

student interpreter Student interpreter was, historically, an entry-level position in the British and American diplomatic and consular service, principally in China, Japan, Siam and, in the case of the United States, Turkey. It is no longer used as a title. A number o ...

in the consular service, he arrived in China at the age of 19 and resided there for 54 years, except for two short leaves in 1866 and 1874.King, Frank H. H.. "Hart, Sir Robert, first baronet". ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004 ed.). Oxford University Press. . Hart was the most important and most influential Westerner in Qing dynasty China. According to

Jung Chang Jung Chang (, , born 25 March 1952) is a Chinese-British writer now living in London, best known for her family autobiography ''Wild Swans'', selling over 10 million copies worldwide but banned in the People's Republic of China. Her 832-page ...

, he transformed Chinese Customs "from an antiquated set-up, anarchical and prone to corruption, into a well-regulated modern organisation, which contributed enormously to China's economy." Professor Rana Mitter of the

University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...

writes that Hart "was honest and helped to generate a great deal of income for China."

Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen (; also known by several other names; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925)Singtao daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition . was a Chinese politician who serve ...

described him as "the most trusted as he was the most efficient and influential of 'Chinese.'"

Early life and education

Hart was born in a little house in Dungannon Street,

Portadown Portadown () is a town in County Armagh, Northern Ireland. The town sits on the River Bann in the north of the county, about southwest of Belfast. It is in the Armagh City, Banbridge and Craigavon Borough Council area and had a population of a ...

County Armagh County Armagh (, named after its county town, Armagh) is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland and one of the traditional thirty-two counties of Ireland. Adjoined to the southern shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of an ...

Ulster Ulster (; ga, Ulaidh or ''Cúige Uladh'' ; sco, label= Ulster Scots, Ulstèr or ''Ulster'') is one of the four traditional Irish provinces. It is made up of nine counties: six of these constitute Northern Ireland (a part of the United Kin ...

, Ireland. He was the eldest of 12 children of Henry Hart (1806–1875), who worked in the distilleries, and a daughter of John Edgar of Ballybreagh. Hart's father was a "man of forceful and picturesque character, of a somewhat unique strain, and a Wesleyan to the core." At the age of 12, Hart's family moved to Milltown (near

Maghery Maghery ()Placenames NI
is a small

), on the banks of the

Lough Neagh Lough Neagh ( ) is a freshwater lake in Northern Ireland and is the largest lake in the island of Ireland, the United Kingdom and the British Isles. It has a surface area of and supplies 40% of Northern Ireland's water. Its main inflows come ...

, staying there for a year before moving on to Hillsborough, where he first attended school. He was sent for a year to a Wesleyan school in

Taunton Taunton () is the county town of Somerset, England, with a 2011 population of 69,570. Its thousand-year history includes a 10th-century monastic foundation, Taunton Castle, which later became a priory. The Normans built a castle owned by the ...

, England, where he learnt his first Latin. His father's anger that his son was allowed to return home unaccompanied at the end of the school year led him being sent to the Wesleyan Connexion School in Dublin (now

Wesley College Dublin Wesley College is an independent co-educational secondary school for day and boarding students in Ballinteer, Dublin, Ireland. Wesley College is under the control of a Board of Governors, appointed each year by the Methodist Church in Ireland. W ...

) instead. Hart studied hard at school. By the age of 15, he was ready to leave school, and his parents decided to send him to the newly founded

Queen's College, Belfast , mottoeng = For so much, what shall we give back? , top_free_label = , top_free = , top_free_label1 = , top_free1 = , top_free_label2 = , top_free2 = , established = , closed = , type = Public research university , parent = ...

. He easily passed the entrance exams and earned himself a scholarship (he earned a further scholarship in the second year, and another in the third). He found little time for sports, but was heavily influenced by

Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803April 27, 1882), who went by his middle name Waldo, was an American essayist, lecturer, philosopher, abolitionist, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. He was seen as a cham ...

's ''

Essays An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a letter, a paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have been sub-classified as formal a ...

'' and had his first poem published in a Belfast newspaper. During his time at university, he became a favourite student of

James McCosh James McCosh (April 1, 1811 – November 16, 1894) was a philosopher of the Scottish School of Common Sense. He was president of Princeton University 1868–88. Biography McCosh was born into a Covenanting family in Ayrshire, an ...

, and they continued to correspond throughout the rest of their lives. In 1853, he took his degree examinations, and gained his

B.A. Bachelor of arts (BA or AB; from the Latin ', ', or ') is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the arts, or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree course is generally completed in three or four yea ...

at the age of 18. He also won medals in Literature as well as in Logic and Metaphysics, and left with the distinction of being a Senior Scholar. He decided to study for a master's degree but in spring 1854 was instead nominated by Queen's College for the Consular Service in China.

Consular Service in China

Hart went down to the

Foreign Office Foreign may refer to: Government * Foreign policy, how a country interacts with other countries * Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in many countries ** Foreign Office, a department of the UK government ** Foreign office and foreign minister * Unit ...

in London, where he met with the

Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs This is a list of Permanent Under-Secretaries in the British Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (and its predecessors) since 1790. Not to be confused with Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. Permanent Un ...

, Edmund Hammond, and left for China in May 1854. Hart took a ship from Southampton to Alexandria, then travelled to Suez, then on to Galle and Bombay, before arriving in Hong Kong. He spent three months as a

at the Superintendency of Trade, before the return of

John Bowring Sir John Bowring , or Phraya Siamanukulkij Siammitrmahayot, , , group=note (17 October 1792 – 23 November 1872) was a British political economist, traveller, writer, literary translator, polyglot and the fourth Governor of Hong Kong. He was a ...

, the

Governor of Hong Kong The governor of Hong Kong was the representative of the British Crown in Hong Kong from 1843 to 1997. In this capacity, the governor was president of the Executive Council and commander-in-chief of the British Forces Overseas Hong Kon ...

. On Bowring's return, Hart was assigned to the British Consulate in

Ningpo Ningbo (; Ningbonese: ''gnin² poq⁷'' , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), formerly romanized as Ningpo, is a major sub-provincial city in northeast Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. It comprises 6 urban districts, 2 sate ...

. In 1855, following a dispute with his Portuguese colleague, the British Consul was suspended, with Hart taking over his duties for a few months. Hart's calmness and good judgement in the face of conflict between the Chinese and Portuguese earned him favourable recommendations. Hart returned to his duties following the appointment of a new Consul, and was still resident in Ningpo during the

Ningpo massacre The Ningpo Massacre was a massacre of Portuguese pirates by Cantonese pirates led by Ah Pak around the city of Ningbo. During the Qing dynasty, in the 19th century, the Ningbo authorities contracted Cantonese pirates to eliminate by exterminatio ...

on 26 June 1857. In March 1858, Hart was transferred to

Canton Canton may refer to: Administrative division terminology * Canton (administrative division), territorial/administrative division in some countries, notably Switzerland * Township (Canada), known as ''canton'' in Canadian French Arts and ente ...

to serve as the Secretary of the Allied Commission that governed the city. In this role, he served under

Harry Smith Parkes Sir Harry Smith Parkes (24 February 1828 – 22 March 1885) was a British diplomat who served as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul General of the United Kingdom to the Empire of Japan from 1865 to 1883 and the Chinese ...

, and found the work "exceedingly interesting": Parkes often took Hart on his trips around or outside Canton. In October 1858, Hart was made an interpreter at the British Consulate in Canton under

Rutherford Alcock Sir John Rutherford Alcock, KCB (25 May 1809''London, England, Church of England Baptisms, Marriages and Burials, 1538–1812''2 November 1897) was the first British diplomatic representative to live in Japan. Early life Alcock was born in St J ...

. In 1859, the Chinese viceroy Lao Tsung Kuang, a special friend of Hart's, invited him to set up a customs house in Canton similar to the one in Shanghai under

Horatio Nelson Lay Horatio Nelson Lay (23 January 1832 – 4 May 1898, Forest Hill, Kent, England) was a British diplomat, noted for his role in the ill-fated "Lay-Osborn Flotilla" during the Taiping Rebellion. Biography Early life Horatio Nelson Lay was born in ...

. In response, Hart said that he knew nothing of customs, but wrote to Lay to explore the possibility. Lay then offered him the role of Deputy Commissioner of Customs, which he accepted, and Hart asked the British government if they would allow him to resign from the consular service. They permitted this, but made clear that he would not be allowed to return whenever he pleased: he submitted his resignation in May 1859, and joined the customs service.

Chinese customs

Upon entering the customs service, Hart began drawing up a series of regulations for the operation of the customs house in Canton. For two years, from 1859 to 1861, Hart worked hard in Canton, but never fell ill in the hot and damp climate. In 1861, facing the threat of the

Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, was a massive rebellion and civil war that was waged in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Han, Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It last ...

marching on Shanghai,

sought leave to return to Britain to nurse his injuries sustained during an anti-British riot in 1859. Lay claimed that so serious were his injuries that he was forced to return to England for two years to recover. In his place, two officiating Inspectors-General were appointed: George Henry Fitzroy, a former private secretary to

Lord Elgin Earl of Elgin is a title in the Peerage of Scotland, created in 1633 for Thomas Bruce, 3rd Lord Kinloss. He was later created Baron Bruce, of Whorlton in the County of York, in the Peerage of England on 30 July 1641. The Earl of Elgin is the h ...

, and Hart. Whilst Fitzroy was content to stay in Shanghai, Hart went around China establishing new customs offices. With the recent ratification of the

Treaty of Tientsin The Treaty of Tientsin, also known as the Treaty of Tianjin, is a collective name for several documents signed at Tianjin (then romanized as Tientsin) in June 1858. The Qing dynasty, Russian Empire, Second French Empire, United Kingdom, and t ...

, a number of new ports were opened to foreign trade, and so new customs structures had to be put in place. In 1861, Hart recommended to the Zongli Yamen the purchase of the Osborn or "Vampire" Fleet. When the proposal was adopted, Lay, on leave in Britain, set out arranging the purchase of the ships and hiring of personnel.

Inspector-General

Robert Hart Vanity Fair 27 December 1894

The good relations Hart established with the imperial authorities in Peking while deputising for Lay, and conflict between Lay and

Prince Gong Yixin (11January 1833– 29May 1898), better known in English as PrinceKung or Gong, was an imperial prince of the Aisin Gioro clan and an important statesman of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in China. He was a regent of the empire from 1861 to 18 ...

and the Zongli Yamen over the Osborn Fleet, led them to dismiss the difficult and haughty Lay upon his return from leave. Hart was appointed in his place in November 1863, with British approval. As Inspector-General of China's Imperial Maritime Custom Service (IMCS), Hart's main responsibilities included collecting custom duties for the Chinese government, as well as expanding the new system to more sea and river ports and some inland frontiers, standardising its operations, and insisting on high standards of efficiency and honesty. The top echelon of the service was recruited from all the nations trading with China. Hart's advice led to the improvement of China's port and navigation facilities. From the start, Hart was anxious to use such influence as he possessed in favour of other modernising steps. In October 1865 Hart submitted to

a memorandum which caused some offence at the time. In it he advised that " all the countries in the world, none is weaker than China" and outlined his proposals. A modern postal service and the supervision of internal taxes on trade were eventually added to the Service's responsibilities. Hart worked to persuade China to establish its own embassies in foreign countries. Earlier, in 1862, he had with the Manchu noble

established the Tongwen Guan (School of Combined Learning) in Peking, with a branch in Canton, to enable educated Chinese to learn foreign languages, culture and science, for China's future diplomatic and other needs. (An early appointment to the school was the completely unsuitable ' Baron von Gumpach' (an assumed name) whose discharge led him to sue Hart in the

British Supreme Court for China and Japan The British Supreme Court for China (originally the British Supreme Court for China and Japan) was a court established in the Shanghai International Settlement to try cases against British subjects in China, Japan and Korea under the principles o ...

for defamation. In 1873, the case ultimately went to the

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is the highest court of appeal for the Crown Dependencies, the British Overseas Territories, some Commonwealth countries and a few institutions in the United Kingdom. Established on 14 Aug ...

''Hart v Gumpach'' which upheld Hart's right to make the decision.) In 1902 the Tongwen Guan was absorbed into the Imperial University, now

Peking University Peking University (PKU; ) is a public research university in Beijing, China. The university is funded by the Ministry of Education. Peking University was established as the Imperial University of Peking in 1898 when it received its royal charte ...

. Hart was known for his diplomatic skills, and befriended many Chinese and Western officials. This aided him in directing customs operations without interruption even during periods of turmoil. His American Commissioner, Edward Drew, credited him with preventing a war with Britain in 1876 (via the

Chefoo Convention The Chefoo Convention, known in Chinese as the Yantai Treaty, was a treaty between Qing China and Great Britain, signed by Sir Thomas Wade and Li Hongzhang in Zhifu (now a district of Yantai) on 21 August 1876. The official reason for the treat ...

), and he and his London representative, James Campbell, helped bring about peace after a French attack on the Chinese navy in

Fuzhou Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, ''Hók-ciŭ''), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute ...

in 1884. In 1885, Hart had also been asked to become Minister Plenipotentiary at Peking, upon the retirement of Sir Thomas Wade. He declined the honor after four months of hesitation, on the grounds that his work in the Customs Service was of certain benefit to both China and Britain, but that the outcome of a change of post was unclear. In 1885, Hart wrote a letter to Lord Salisbury, strongly advocating an alliance with China as a preemptive defence of British India from the Russian Empire. Hart & his band

During Hart's tenure in the Maritime Customs, Prince Gong was head of the Zongli Yamen, the newly established Chinese equivalent of the

British Foreign Office The Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. Equivalent to other countries' ministries of foreign affairs, it was created on 2 September 2020 through the merger of the Foreig ...

, and the two men held each other in high regard. Hart was so well known in the Zongli Yamen that he was affectionately nicknamed "our Hart" (wǒmen de Hèdé, 我們的赫德). He also often worked closely with the powerful Viceroy,

Li Hongzhang Li Hongzhang, Marquess Suyi ( zh, t=李鴻章; also Li Hung-chang; 15 February 1823 – 7 November 1901) was a Chinese politician, general and diplomat of the late Qing dynasty. He quelled several major rebellions and served in important ...

and their final work together involved negotiating a settlement China could tolerate at the end of the

Boxer Rebellion The Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising, the Boxer Insurrection, or the Yihetuan Movement, was an Xenophobia, anti-foreign, anti-colonialism, anti-colonial, and Persecution of Christians#China, anti-Christian uprising in China ...

, when the

Eight-Nation Alliance The Eight-Nation Alliance was a multinational military coalition that invaded northern China in 1900 with the stated aim of relieving the foreign legations in Beijing, then besieged by the popular Boxer militia, who were determined to remove fo ...

of Western forces took control of Peking to lift the

Siege of the International Legations The siege of the International Legations occurred in 1900 in Peking, the capital of the Qing Empire, during the Boxer Rebellion. Menaced by the Boxers; an anti-Christian anti-foreign peasant movement, 900 soldiers, sailors, marines, and civilian ...

, after the

Dowager Empress Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother) () is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese emperor in the Chinese cultural sphere. The title was al ...

and her nephew the

Guangxu Emperor The Guangxu Emperor (14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908), personal name Zaitian, was the tenth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the ninth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign lasted from 1875 to 1908, but in practice he ruled, w ...

had fled the city. Hart held his post till his retirement in 1910, although he left China on leave in April 1908, and was succeeded temporarily by his brother-in-law, Sir Robert Bredon, and then formally by Sir Francis Aglen. Hart died on 20 September 1911 after a cardiac decline following a bout of pneumonia. He was buried on 25 September 1911 at

Bisham Bisham is a village and civil parish in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. The village is on the River Thames, around south of Marlow in the neighbouring county of Buckinghamshire, and around northwest of Maide ...

, Berkshire, England. His tombstone was restored in 2013.

Family life

Hart's devotion to his work played havoc with his emotional life. As a young man, in spite of his Methodist conscience, he had bouts of promiscuity. In 1857 he took a Chinese concubine, Ayaou, with whom he had three children and for whom he developed genuine affection and respect. After becoming Inspector General at the end of 1863 one of his resolutions was to set a good example to his staff. For him this included parting with Ayaou (who seems to have been still in the south) and finding a respectable British wife. In December 1864 he visited Hong Kong and Canton, and it seems that while there, he made generous arrangements for Ayaou and made plans for the removal of the children to Britain. This was delayed as it seems in saying farewell he had also made her pregnant with their third child. Also one of the key persons whose help he needed was away. As he recorded in his diary for 15 January 1865 "I had to leave undone the private business I was most anxious to have got arranged". In May 1866 he arrived in Britain for his first leave. It seems likely the three children, (Anna, Herbert and Arthur Hart), travelled on the same boat with his Chinese steward, and his lawyer immediately found them a foster home. He was now felt free to find a respectable wife, and his aunt had already prepared the way with the daughter of her doctor. He arrived home on 25 May, and on 31 May he and his aunt called on the 18-year-old Hester Bredon and her newly widowed mother. A rapid courtship followed. On their third meeting, on 5 June, he proposed and was accepted. They married in

Dublin Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2016 ...

on 22 August and in September left for Peking. With Hester he had three legal children, Evelyn, Robert and Mabel, but did not see much of them. They both made a genuine effort to make the marriage work and to find common interests, but Peking life had its difficulties. Hester returned to Britain in 1876 with their first two children. A brief reunion started on his second leave in 1878, during which he had a break down. Hester probably found out about the illegitimate children, whose education was causing expense, during this leave. She accompanied him back to Peking, where the third child, Mabel, was born, but from 1882 she and the children lived permanently in London. The relationship was maintained by letter. Hart wrote regularly to his wife and legal children. The two oldest visited him in Peking briefly in the 1890s, not very satisfactorily. He was disappointed in the adult lives of his three legitimate children, but acknowledged in a letter to Campbell that he had been a neglectful father, not being present to set an example, but China was his priority.Tiffen 2012 It is not known when Ayaou died. His diary records letters from her in 1870 and in May 1872 "Will this never end?". While making no direct contact with them, Hart took an interest in the progress of his illegitimate children, through his lawyer and soon also via Campbell, his friend and colleague in charge of the London office. In his last decade, he was obliged to acknowledge them by legal declarations. After 1882 he lived a celibate life, but had deep friendships with many girls and women, amongst whom were three generations of the Carrall family. Many of his male staff felt he was a supportive friend as well as a demanding superior. He got to know all his promising young men while they were students learning Chinese under his eyes in Peking, for he insisted that the ability to speak and write Mandarin Chinese was essential for promotion to Commissioner in charge of a Chinese port. Sir Robert was survived by his wife and three children and was succeeded in the Baronetcy by his son Sir Edgar Hart, 2nd Baronet of Kilmoriarty (1893–1963). Sir Edgar was succeeded in the Baronetcy by his son Sir Robin Hart, 3rd Baronet of Kilmoriarty, who died in 1970 at which time the title fell into abeyance. His daughter Mabel (1869 - 10 June 1933), while living in Peking, was married to William Nelthorpe Beauclerk, grandson of

William Beauclerk, 8th Duke of St Albans William Beauclerk, 8th Duke of St Albans (18 December 1766 – 17 July 1825) was an English aristocrat. Early life and career William was born on 18 December 1766. He was the second son of Lady Catharine Ponsonby and Aubrey Beauclerk, 5th Duke ...

in 1892.

Awards and recognition

Sir Robert Hart Memorial School, Charles Street, Portadown

Robert Hart, was highly decorated, receiving four hereditary titles, fifteen orders of knighthood (of the first class) and many other honorary academic and civic awards. His skills as Inspector-General were recognized by both Chinese and Western authorities, and he was awarded several honorific Chinese titles, including the ''Red Button'', or button of the highest rank; a ''Peacock's Feather''; the ''Order of the Double Dragon''; ''the Ancestral Rank of the First Class of the First Order for Three Generations''; and the title of ''Junior Guardian of the Heir Apparent'' in December 1901. He was also appointed a ''CMG'', ''KCMG'', and ''GCMG'', and received a British

baronet A baronet ( or ; abbreviated Bart or Bt) or the female equivalent, a baronetess (, , or ; abbreviation Btss), is the holder of a baronetcy, a hereditary title awarded by the British Crown. The title of baronet is mentioned as early as the 14t ...

cy. In 1900, he was awarded the Prussian Order of the Crown (First Class), and received this in person the following year from the German Minister in China. In 1906, he was awarded a Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog by the King of Denmark. His name is still remembered through a street,

Hart Avenue Hart Avenue () is a Y-shaped street in Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon, Hong Kong, located between Carnarvon Road and Chatham Road. It was given the name 'Hart Avenue' after Sir Robert Hart, 1st Baronet, a British consular official in China. The north ...

, in

Tsim Sha Tsui Tsim Sha Tsui, often abbreviated as TST, is an urban area in southern Kowloon, Hong Kong. The area is administratively part of the Yau Tsim Mong District. Tsim Sha Tsui East is a piece of land reclaimed from the Hung Hom Bay now east of Tsi ...

, Hong Kong. There was also formerly a "''Rue Hart'' " in the

Beijing Legation Quarter The Peking Legation Quarter was the area in Peking (Beijing), China where a number of foreign legations were located between 1861 and 1959. In the Chinese language, the area is known as ''Dong Jiaomin Xiang'' (), which is the name of the ''hutong ...

(now Taijichang First Street) and a Hart Road in Shanghai (now Changde Road). In 1935, the "Sir Robert Hart Memorial Primary School" in

Northern Ireland Northern Ireland ( ga, Tuaisceart Éireann ; sco, label=Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots, Norlin Airlann) is a part of the United Kingdom, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, that is #Descriptions, variously described as ...

, was established in his name. Hart is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Chinese legless lizard, ''

Dopasia harti ''Dopasia harti'', Hart's glass lizard, is a species of lizard of the Anguidae family. It is found in Vietnam, China, and Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and S ...

''.Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. . ("Hart", p. 117). He was posthumously promoted to " Minister" rank and awarded the title of ''Senior Guardian of the Heir Apparent'' according to Chinese political tradition.

Honours list

SWE_Order_of_Vasa_-_Knight_2nd_Class_BAR

1870: Chevalier of the

Order of Vasa The Royal Order of Vasa () is a Swedish order of chivalry, awarded to citizens of Sweden for service to state and society especially in the fields of agriculture, mining and commerce. It was instituted on 29 May 1772 by King Gustav III. It was u ...

(Sweden). * Ord

1873: Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph (Austria-Hungary; Commander: 1870) * Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom

1875: Honorary

Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( la, Magister Artium or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA, M.A., AM, or A.M.) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Tho ...

. *

1881: Red Button of the First Class (China). * Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom

1882: Honorary

Doctor of Laws A Doctor of Law is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country and includes degrees such as the Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D), Juris Doctor (J.D.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and Legum Doctor ...

. *

1885: Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (France; Commander: 1878) * Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889-1912)

1885: First Class, Second Grade of the

Order of the Double Dragon The Imperial Order of the Double Dragon () was an order awarded in the late Qing dynasty. The Order was founded by the Guangxu Emperor on 7 February 1882 as an award for outstanding services to the throne and the Qing court. Originally it was aw ...

(China) *

1885: The Peacock's Feather (China) * VA_Ordine_Piano_BAR

1885: Knight Commander of the

Order of Pius IX The Order of Pope Pius IX ( it, Ordine di Pio IX), also referred as the Pian Order ( it, Ordine Piano), is a papal order of knighthood originally founded by Pope Pius IV in 1560. Currently, it is the highest honor conferred by the Holy See (bein ...

(Holy See). * Flag of the United States (1877-1890)

1886: Honorary Doctor of Laws,

University of Michigan , mottoeng = "Arts, Knowledge, Truth" , former_names = Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania (1817–1821) , budget = $10.3 billion (2021) , endowment = $17 billion (2021)As o ...

. *

1888: Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (Portugal). * UK_Order_St-Michael_St-George_ribbon

1889: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (Great Britain; KCMG: 1882; CMG: 1879) * Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889-1912)

1889: Ancestral rank of the First Class of the First order for three generations (China). * Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom

1893: Baronet of Kilmoriarty in the

County of Armagh County Armagh (, named after its county town, Armagh) is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland and one of the traditional thirty-two counties of Ireland. Adjoined to the southern shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of and has ...

. * 1894: Commander Grand Cross of the

Order of the Polar Star The Royal Order of the Polar Star ( Swedish: ''Kungliga Nordstjärneorden'') is a Swedish order of chivalry created by King Frederick I on 23 February 1748, together with the Order of the Sword and the Order of the Seraphim. The Order of t ...

(Sweden). * 1897: Knight Grand Cross of the

Order of Orange Nassau The Order of Orange-Nassau ( nl, Orde van Oranje-Nassau, links=no) is a civil and military Dutch order of chivalry founded on 4 April 1892 by the queen regent, Emma of the Netherlands. The order is a chivalric order open to "everyone who has ...

(Netherlands). * Croce di guerra al valor militare BAR

1900: First Class of the Order of the Crown (Prussia). * Flag of the Qing Dynasty (1889-1912)

1901: Junior Guardian of the Heir Apparent (China) * Cavaliere_di_Gran_Croce_OCI_Kingdom_BAR

1906: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (Italy; Grand Officer: 1884). * JPN_Kyokujitsu-sho_1Class_BAR

1906: First Class of the

Order of the Rising Sun The is a Japanese order, established in 1875 by Emperor Meiji. The Order was the first national decoration awarded by the Japanese government, created on 10 April 1875 by decree of the Council of State. The badge features rays of sunlight f ...

(Japan). * Grand_Crest_Ordre_de_Leopold

1906: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (Belgium; Grand Officer: 1893; Commander: 1869) * Order of Saint Anna ribbon bar

1907: First Class of the

Order of St Anna The Imperial Order of Saint Anna (russian: Орден Святой Анны; also "Order of Saint Anne" or "Order of Saint Ann") was a Holstein ducal and then Russian imperial order of chivalry. It was established by Karl Friedrich, Duke of Hol ...

(Russia). * 1907: Grand Cross of the

Order of the Dragon of Annam The Imperial Order of the Dragon of Annam (, , ; french: Ordre impérial du Dragon d'Annam, Ordre du Dragon Vert) was created in 1886 in the city of Huế, by Emperor Đồng Khánh of the Imperial House of Annam, upon the "recommendation" of th ...

(France). * 1907: Grand Cross of the

Order of St. Olav The Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav ( no, Den Kongelige Norske Sankt Olavs Orden; or ''Sanct Olafs Orden'', the old Norwegian name) is a Norwegian order of chivalry instituted by King Oscar I on 21 August 1847. It is named after King Olav II ...

(Norway).

Arms

Notes

References and further reading

* Bell, S. ''Hart of Lisburn''. Lisburn Historical Press, 1985. * Bickers, Robert. "Revisiting the Chinese maritime customs service, 1854–1950." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 36.2 (2008): 221–226. * Bickers, Robert. "Purloined Letters: History and the Chinese Maritime Customs Service." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 40.3 (2006): 691–723
online
* * Bredon, Juliet.
Sir Robert Hart: The Romance of a Great Career
' (1st ed.). London: Hutchinson & Co., 1909. ** Bredon, Juliet.
Sir Robert Hart: The Romance of a Great Career
' (2nd ed.). London: Hutchinson & Co., 1910. * Broomhall A. J., ''Hudson Taylor & China's Open Century Volume Three: If I Had a Thousand Lives''; Hodder and Stoughton and Overseas Missionary Fellowship, 1982. * Brunero, Donna Maree. ''Britain's Imperial Cornerstone in China: The Chinese Maritime Customs Service, 1854–1949'' (Routledge, 2006). * Chang, Jung. '' Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China''. Vintage Books, 2014. * Chang, Chihyun. "Sir Robert Hart and the Writing of Modern Chinese History." ''International Journal of Asian Studies'' 17.2 (2020): 109–126. * Drew, Edward B. "Sir Robert Hart and His Life Work in China." ''The Journal of Race Development'' (1913): 1–3
online
* Eberhard-Bréard, Andrea. "Robert Hart and China's statistical revolution." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 40.3 (2006): 605–629
online
* Horowitz, Richard S. "Politics, power and the Chinese maritime customs: The Qing restoration and the ascent of Robert Hart." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 40.3 (2006): 549–58
online
* King, Frank H.H. "The Boxer Indemnity—'Nothing but Bad'." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 40.3 (2006): 663–689. * Li, L. and Wildy, D. "A New Discovery and its Significance: The Statutory Declarations made by Sir Robert Hart concerning his Secret Domestic Life in 19th century China," ''Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 13. 2003. * Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Submission: 1861–1893''. (1918
online
based in part on Hart's papers ** Morse, Hosea Ballou. ''International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Subjection: 1894–1911'' (1918
online
based in part on Hart's papers. * O'Leary, Richard. "Robert Hart in China: The significance of his Irish roots." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 40.3 (2006): 583–604
online
* Spence, Jonathan D. ''To Change China: Western Advisers in China, 1620–1960''. Harmondsworth and New York: Penguin Books, 1980. * Tiffen, Mary, ''Friends of Sir Robert Hart: Three Generations of Carrall women in China''. Tiffania Books, 2012. * Van de Ven, Hans. "Robert Hart and Gustav Detring during the Boxer Rebellion." ''Modern Asian Studies'' 40.3 (2006): 631–66
online
* Vynckier, Henk and Chihyun Chang, "'Imperium in Imperio': Robert Hart, the Chinese Maritime Customs Service, and its (Self-)Representations," ''Biography'' 37#1 (2014), pp. 69–9
online
* Wright, S.F. ''Hart and the Chinese Customs'', William Mullen and Son for Queen's University, Belfast, 1952; a scholarly biography.

Primary sources

* Bruner, K. F., Fairbank, J. K., and Smith, R. J. ''Entering China's Service: Robert Hart's Journals, 1854–1863''. Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1986. * Fairbank J. K., Bruner, K. F., Matheson, E. M., ed. ''The I.G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868–1907''. (2 vol. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975
vol 2 online
* Smith, R. J., Fairbank, J. K., & Bruner, K. F. ''Robert Hart and China's Early Modernization: His Journals, 1863–66''. Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1991. * Smith, Richard, John K. Fairbank, and Katherine Bruner, eds. ''Robert Hart and China’s Early Modernization: His Journals, 1863–1866'' (BRILL, 2020).

External links

The Irish Contribution to Joseon Korea – OhmyNews International
at English.ohmynews.com
Sir Robert Hart Collection
at

Queen's University, Belfast , mottoeng = For so much, what shall we give back? , top_free_label = , top_free = , top_free_label1 = , top_free1 = , top_free_label2 = , top_free2 = , established = , closed = , type = Public research university , parent = ...

Chinese Maritime Customs project
at the

University of Bristol , mottoeng = earningpromotes one's innate power (from Horace, ''Ode 4.4'') , established = 1595 – Merchant Venturers School1876 – University College, Bristol1909 – received royal charter , type ...

Sir Robert Hart Memorial Primary SchoolSir Robert Hart at Bumali Brojecttiffaniabooks.com
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Hart, Robert 1st Baronet 1835 births 1911 deaths Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom British diplomats British expatriates in China China–United Kingdom relations Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal) Grand Crosses of the Order of Franz Joseph Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur History of foreign trade in China Knights of the Order of Pope Pius IX Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Knights of the Order of Vasa People educated at Queen's College, Taunton People from Armagh (city) Grand Crosses of the Order of the Dannebrog People educated at Wesley College, Dublin People from Portadown Recipients of the Order of the Dragon of Annam Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class