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A single-page application (SPA) is a
web application A web application (or web app) is application software that is accessed using a web browser. Web applications are delivered on the World Wide Web to users with an active network connection. History In earlier computing models like client-serve ...
or
website A website (also written as a web site) is a collection of web pages and related content that is identified by a common domain name and published on at least one web server. Examples of notable websites are Google Search, Google, Facebook, Amaz ...
that interacts with the user by dynamically rewriting the current web page with new data from the
web server A web server is computer software and underlying hardware that accepts requests via HTTP (the network protocol created to distribute web content) or its secure variant HTTPS. A user agent, commonly a web browser or web crawler, initiate ...
, instead of the default method of a
web browser A web browser is application software for accessing websites. When a user requests a web page from a particular website, the browser retrieves its files from a web server and then displays the page on the user's screen. Browsers are used on ...
loading entire new pages. The goal is faster transitions that make the website feel more like a
native Native may refer to: People * Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth * Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory ** Native Americans (disambiguation) In arts and entert ...
app. In a SPA, a page refresh never occurs; instead, all necessary
HTML The HyperText Markup Language or HTML is the standard markup language for documents designed to be displayed in a web browser. It can be assisted by technologies such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaScri ...
,
JavaScript JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2022, 98% of Website, websites use JavaScript on the Client (computing), client side ...
, and
CSS Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a document written in a markup language such as HTML or XML (including XML dialects such as SVG, MathML or XHTML). CSS is a cornerstone techno ...
code is either retrieved by the browser with a single page load,Flanagan, David,
JavaScript - The Definitive Guide
, 5th ed., ''O'Reilly, Sebastopol, CA, 2006'', p.497
or the appropriate resources are dynamically loaded and added to the page as necessary, usually in response to user actions.


History

The origins of the term ''single-page application'' are unclear, though the concept was discussed at least as early as 2003. Stuart Morris, a programming student at Cardiff University, Wales, wrote the Self-Contained website at slashdotslash.com with the same goals and functions in April 2002, and later the same year Lucas Birdeau, Kevin Hakman, Michael Peachey and Clifford Yeh described a single-page application implementation in US patent 8,136,109. JavaScript can be used in a web browser to display the
user interface In the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, a user interface (UI) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine f ...
(UI), run application logic, and communicate with a web server. Mature
free Free may refer to: Concept * Freedom, having the ability to do something, without having to obey anyone/anything * Freethought, a position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism * Emancipate, to procur ...
libraries are available that support the building of a SPA, reducing the amount of JavaScript code developers have to write.


Technical approaches

There are various techniques available that enable the browser to retain a single page even when the application requires server communication.


Document Hashes

HTML authors can leverage element IDs to show or hide different sections of the HTML document. Then, using CSS, authors can use the `#target` selector to only show the section of the page which the browser navigated to.


JavaScript frameworks

Web browser JavaScript frameworks and libraries, such as
AngularJS AngularJS is a discontinued free and open-source JavaScript-based web framework for developing single-page applications. It was maintained mainly by Google and a community of individuals and corporations. It aimed to simplify both the development ...
,
Ember.js Ember.js is an open-source JavaScript web framework that utilizes a component-service pattern. It allows developers to create scalable single-page web applications by incorporating common idioms, best practices, and patterns from other single-pa ...
,
ExtJS Ext JS is a JavaScript application framework for building interactive cross-platform web applications using techniques such as Ajax, DHTML and DOM scripting. It can be used as a simple component framework (for example, to create dynamic grids on ...
,
Knockout.js Knockout is a standalone JavaScript implementation of the Model–View–ViewModel Model–view–viewmodel (MVVM) is an architectural pattern in computer software that facilitates the separation of the development of the graphical user int ...
, Meteor.js,
React REACT or React may refer to: Science and technology *REACT (telescope), a telescope at Fenton Hill Observatory, New Mexico, US Computing * React (JavaScript library) , a JavaScript library for building user interfaces, from Facebook ** React Nati ...
,
Vue.js Vue.js (commonly referred to as Vue; pronounced "view") is an open-source model–view–viewmodel front end JavaScript framework for building user interfaces and single-page applications. It was created by Evan You, and is maintained by him ...
, and
Svelte Svelte is a free and open-source front end component framework or language created by Rich Harris and maintained by the Svelte core team members. Svelte is not a monolithic JavaScript library imported by applications: instead, Svelte compiles H ...
have adopted SPA principles. Aside from ExtJS, all of these are
free Free may refer to: Concept * Freedom, having the ability to do something, without having to obey anyone/anything * Freethought, a position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism * Emancipate, to procur ...
. *
AngularJS AngularJS is a discontinued free and open-source JavaScript-based web framework for developing single-page applications. It was maintained mainly by Google and a community of individuals and corporations. It aimed to simplify both the development ...
is a fully client-side framework. AngularJS's templating is based on bidirectional
UI data binding UI data binding is a software design pattern to simplify development of GUI applications. UI data binding binds UI elements to an application domain model. Most frameworks employ the Observer pattern as the underlying binding mechanism. To work ...
. Data-binding is an automatic way of updating the view whenever the model changes, as well as updating the model whenever the view changes. The HTML template is compiled in the browser. The compilation step creates pure HTML, which the browser re-renders into the live view. The step is repeated for subsequent page views. In traditional server-side HTML programming, concepts such as controller and model interact within a server process to produce new HTML views. In the AngularJS framework, the controller and model states are maintained within the client browser. Therefore, new pages are capable of being generated without any interaction with a server. *
Ember.js Ember.js is an open-source JavaScript web framework that utilizes a component-service pattern. It allows developers to create scalable single-page web applications by incorporating common idioms, best practices, and patterns from other single-pa ...
is a client-side JavaScript web application framework based on the
model–view–controller Model–view–controller (MVC) is a software architectural pattern commonly used for developing user interfaces that divide the related program logic into three interconnected elements. This is done to separate internal representations of infor ...
(MVC) software architectural pattern. It allows developers to create scalable single-page applications by incorporating common idioms and best practices into a framework that provides a rich object model, declarative two-way data binding, computed properties, automatically updating templates powered by Handlebars.js, and a router for managing application state. *
ExtJS Ext JS is a JavaScript application framework for building interactive cross-platform web applications using techniques such as Ajax, DHTML and DOM scripting. It can be used as a simple component framework (for example, to create dynamic grids on ...
is also a client side framework that allows creating MVC applications. It has its own event system, window and layout management, state management (stores) and various UI components (grids, dialog windows, form elements etc.). It has its own class system with either dynamic or static loader. The application built with ExtJS can either exist on its own (with state in the browser) or with the server (e.g. with REST API that is used to fill its internal stores). ExtJS has only built in capabilities to use localStorage so larger applications need a server to store state. *
Knockout.js Knockout is a standalone JavaScript implementation of the Model–View–ViewModel Model–view–viewmodel (MVVM) is an architectural pattern in computer software that facilitates the separation of the development of the graphical user int ...
is a client side framework which uses templates based on the Model-View-ViewModel pattern. * Meteor.js is a full-stack (client-server) JavaScript framework designed exclusively for SPAs. It features simpler data binding than Angular, Ember or ReactJS, and uses the
Distributed Data Protocol Meteor, or MeteorJS, is a partly proprietary, mostly free and open-source isomorphic JavaScript web framework written using Node.js. Meteor allows for rapid prototyping and produces cross-platform ( Android, iOS, Web) code. The server-side Mongo ...
and a publish–subscribe pattern to automatically propagate data changes to clients in real-time without requiring the developer to write any synchronization code. Full stack reactivity ensures that all layers, from the database to the templates, update themselves automatically when necessary. Ecosystem packages such as ''Server Side Rendering'' address the problem of Search Engine Optimization. *
React REACT or React may refer to: Science and technology *REACT (telescope), a telescope at Fenton Hill Observatory, New Mexico, US Computing * React (JavaScript library) , a JavaScript library for building user interfaces, from Facebook ** React Nati ...
is a JavaScript library for building
user interfaces In the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, a user interface (UI) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine fr ...
. It is maintained by
Facebook Facebook is an online social media and social networking service owned by American company Meta Platforms. Founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with fellow Harvard College students and roommates Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin M ...
,
Instagram Instagram is a photo and video sharing social networking service owned by American company Meta Platforms. The app allows users to upload media that can be edited with filters and organized by hashtags and geographical tagging. Posts can ...
and a community of individual developers and corporations. React uses a new language which is a mix of JS and HTML (a subset of HTML). Several companies use React with Redux (JavaScript library) which adds state management capabilities, which (with several other libraries) lets developers create complex applications. *
Vue.js Vue.js (commonly referred to as Vue; pronounced "view") is an open-source model–view–viewmodel front end JavaScript framework for building user interfaces and single-page applications. It was created by Evan You, and is maintained by him ...
is a JavaScript framework for building user interfaces. Vue developers also provide Vuex for state management. *
Svelte Svelte is a free and open-source front end component framework or language created by Rich Harris and maintained by the Svelte core team members. Svelte is not a monolithic JavaScript library imported by applications: instead, Svelte compiles H ...
is a framework for building user interfaces that compiles Svelte code to JavaScript DOM (Document Object Model) manipulations, avoiding the need to bundle a framework to the client, and allowing for simpler application development syntax.


Ajax

As of 2006, the most prominent technique used was Ajax. Ajax involves using asynchronous requests to a server for
XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing arbitrary data. It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. T ...
or
JSON JSON (JavaScript Object Notation, pronounced ; also ) is an open standard file format and data interchange format that uses human-readable text to store and transmit data objects consisting of attribute–value pairs and arrays (or other ser ...
data, such as with JavaScript's
XMLHttpRequest XMLHttpRequest (XHR) is an API in the form of an object whose methods transfer data between a web browser and a web server. The object is provided by the browser's JavaScript environment. Particularly, retrieval of data from XHR for the purpose o ...
or more modern fetch() (since 2017), or the deprecated ActiveX Object. In contrast to the declarative approach of most SPA frameworks, with Ajax the website directly uses JavaScript or a JavaScript library such as jQuery to manipulate the
DOM Dom or DOM may refer to: People and fictional characters * Dom (given name), including fictional characters * Dom (surname) * Dom La Nena (born 1989), stage name of Brazilian-born cellist, singer and songwriter Dominique Pinto * Dom people, an et ...
and edit HTML elements. Ajax has further been popularized by libraries like jQuery, which provides a simpler syntax and normalizes Ajax behavior across different browsers which historically had varying behavior.


WebSockets

WebSockets are a bidirectional real-time client-server communication technology that are part of the HTML5 specification. For real-time communication, their use is superior to Ajax in terms of performance and simplicity.


Server-sent events

Server-sent events (SSEs) is a technique whereby servers can initiate data transmission to browser clients. Once an initial connection has been established, an event stream remains open until closed by the client. SSEs are sent over traditional HTTP and have a variety of features that WebSockets lack by design such as automatic reconnection, event IDs, and the ability to send arbitrary events.


Browser plugins

Although this method is outdated, asynchronous calls to the server may also be achieved using browser plug-in technologies such as
Silverlight Microsoft Silverlight is a discontinued application framework designed for writing and running rich web applications, similar to Adobe Inc., Adobe's Run time environment, runtime, Adobe Flash. A plugin for Silverlight is still available for a v ...
,
Flash Flash, flashes, or FLASH may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional aliases * Flash (DC Comics character), several DC Comics superheroes with super speed: ** Flash (Barry Allen) ** Flash (Jay Garrick) ** Wally West, the first Kid ...
, or Java applets.


Data transport (XML, JSON and Ajax)

Requests to the server typically result in either raw data (e.g.,
XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing arbitrary data. It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. T ...
or
JSON JSON (JavaScript Object Notation, pronounced ; also ) is an open standard file format and data interchange format that uses human-readable text to store and transmit data objects consisting of attribute–value pairs and arrays (or other ser ...
), or new
HTML The HyperText Markup Language or HTML is the standard markup language for documents designed to be displayed in a web browser. It can be assisted by technologies such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaScri ...
being returned. In the case where HTML is returned by the server, JavaScript on the client updates a partial area of the DOM ( Document Object Model). When raw data is returned, often a client-side JavaScript
XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing arbitrary data. It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. T ...
/ (
XSL In computing, the term Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL) is used to refer to a family of languages used to transform and render XML documents. Historically, the W3C XSL Working Group produced a draft specification under the name "XSL," which ...
) process (and in the case of JSON a
template Template may refer to: Tools * Die (manufacturing), used to cut or shape material * Mold, in a molding process * Stencil, a pattern or overlay used in graphic arts (drawing, painting, etc.) and sewing to replicate letters, shapes or designs Co ...
) is used to translate the raw data into HTML, which is then used to update a partial area of the DOM.


Server architecture


Thin server architecture

A SPA moves logic from the server to the client, with the role of the web server evolving into a pure data API or web service. This architectural shift has, in some circles, been coined "Thin Server Architecture" to highlight that complexity has been moved from the server to the client, with the argument that this ultimately reduces overall complexity of the system.


Thick stateful server architecture

The server keeps the necessary state in memory of the client state of the page. In this way, when any request hits the server (usually user actions), the server sends the appropriate HTML and/or JavaScript with the concrete changes to bring the client to the new desired state (usually adding/deleting/updating a part of the client DOM). At the same time, the state in server is updated. Most of the logic is executed on the server, and HTML is usually also rendered on the server. In some ways, the server simulates a web browser, receiving events and performing delta changes in server state which are automatically propagated to client. This approach needs more server memory and server processing, but the advantage is a simplified development model because a) the application is usually fully coded in the server, and b) data and UI state in the server are shared in the same memory space with no need for custom client/server communication bridges.


Thick stateless server architecture

This is a variant of the stateful server approach. The client page sends data representing its current state to the server, usually through Ajax requests. Using this data, the server is able to reconstruct the client state of the part of the page which needs to be modified and can generate the necessary data or code (for instance, as JSON or JavaScript), which is returned to the client to bring it to a new state, usually modifying the page DOM tree according to the client action that motivated the request. This approach requires that more data be sent to the server and may require more computational resources per request to partially or fully reconstruct the client page state in the server. At the same time, this approach is more easily scalable because there is no per-client page data kept in the server and, therefore, Ajax requests can be dispatched to different server nodes with no need for session data sharing or server affinity.


Running locally

Some SPAs may be executed from a local file using the
file URI scheme The file URI Scheme is a URI scheme defined in , typically used to retrieve files from within one's own computer. Previously the file URI scheme was specified in and . The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) published RFC 8089, updating the ...
. This gives users the ability to download the SPA from a server and run the file from a local storage device, without depending on server connectivity. If such a SPA wants to store and update data, it must use browser-based
Web Storage Web storage, sometimes known as DOM storage (Document Object Model storage), is a standard JavaScript API provided by web browsers. It enables websites to store persistent data on users' devices similar to cookies, but with much larger capacity ...
. These applications benefit from advances available with HTML5.


Challenges with the SPA model

Because the SPA is an evolution away from the stateless page-redraw model that browsers were originally designed for, some new challenges have emerged. Possible solutions (of varying complexity, comprehensiveness, and author control) include: * Client-side JavaScript libraries. * Server-side web frameworks that specialize in the SPA model. * The evolution of browsers and the HTML5 specification, designed for the SPA model.


Search-engine optimization

Because of the lack of JavaScript execution on crawlers of some popular
Web search engines A search engine is a software system designed to carry out web searches. They search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular information specified in a textual web search query. The search results are generally presented in a ...
, SEO (
Search engine optimization Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of improving the quality and quantity of Web traffic, website traffic to a website or a web page from web search engine, search engines. SEO targets unpaid traffic (known as "natural" or "Organ ...
) has historically presented a problem for public facing websites wishing to adopt the SPA model. Between 2009 and 2015, Google Webmaster Central proposed and then recommended an "AJAX crawling scheme" using an initial exclamation mark in fragment identifiers for stateful AJAX pages (#!). Special behavior must be implemented by the SPA site to allow extraction of relevant metadata by the search engine's crawler. For search engines that do not support this URL hash scheme, the hashed URLs of the SPA remain invisible. These "hash-bang" URIs have been considered problematic by a number of writers including Jeni Tennison at the W3C because they make pages inaccessible to those who do not have
JavaScript JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2022, 98% of Website, websites use JavaScript on the Client (computing), client side ...
activated in their browser. They also break HTTP referer headers as browsers are not allowed to send the fragment identifier in the Referer header. In 2015, Google deprecated their hash-bang AJAX crawling proposal. Alternatively, applications may render the first page load on the server and subsequent page updates on the client. This is traditionally difficult, because the rendering code might need to be written in a different language or framework on the server and in the client. Using logic-less templates, cross-compiling from one language to another, or using the same language on the server and the client may help to increase the amount of code that can be shared. In 2018, Google introduced dynamic rendering as another option for sites wishing to offer crawlers a non-JavaScript heavy version of a page for indexing purposes. Dynamic rendering switches between a version of a page that is rendered client-side and a pre-rendered version for specific user agents. This approach involves your web server detecting crawlers (via the user agent) and routing them to a renderer, from which they are then served a simpler version of HTML content. Because SEO compatibility is not trivial in SPAs, it is worth noting that SPAs are commonly not used in a context where search engine indexing is either a requirement, or desirable. Use cases include applications that surface private data hidden behind an authentication system. In the cases where these applications are consumer products, often a classic "page redraw" model is used for the applications landing page and marketing site, which provides enough meta data for the application to appear as a hit in a search engine query. Blogs, support forums, and other traditional page redraw artifacts often sit around the SPA that can seed search engines with relevant terms. As of 2021 and Google specifically, SEO compatibility for a plain SPA is straightforward and requires just a few simple conditions to be met. A practical guide for a more advanced SPA that uses selective prerendering is available as well. One way to increase the amount of code that can be shared between servers and clients is to use a logic-less template language like Mustache or Handlebars. Such templates can be rendered from different host languages, such as
Ruby A ruby is a pinkish red to blood-red colored gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum ( aluminium oxide). Ruby is one of the most popular traditional jewelry gems and is very durable. Other varieties of gem-quality corundum are called sa ...
on the server and
JavaScript JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language that is one of the core technologies of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. As of 2022, 98% of Website, websites use JavaScript on the Client (computing), client side ...
in the client. However, merely sharing templates typically requires duplication of business logic used to choose the correct templates and populate them with data. Rendering from templates may have negative performance effects when only updating a small portion of the page—such as the value of a text input within a large template. Replacing an entire template might also disturb a user's selection or cursor position, where updating only the changed value might not. To avoid these problems, applications can use
UI data binding UI data binding is a software design pattern to simplify development of GUI applications. UI data binding binds UI elements to an application domain model. Most frameworks employ the Observer pattern as the underlying binding mechanism. To work ...
s or granular
DOM Dom or DOM may refer to: People and fictional characters * Dom (given name), including fictional characters * Dom (surname) * Dom La Nena (born 1989), stage name of Brazilian-born cellist, singer and songwriter Dominique Pinto * Dom people, an et ...
manipulation to only update the appropriate parts of the page instead of re-rendering entire templates.Holmes, Simone (2015). ''Getting MEAN with Mongo, Express, Angular, and Node''. Manning Publications.


Client/server code partitioning


Browser history

With a SPA being, by definition, "a single page", the model breaks the browser's design for page history navigation using the "forward" or "back" buttons. This presents a usability impediment when a user presses the back button, expecting the previous screen state within the SPA, but instead, the application's single page unloads and the previous page in the browser's history is presented. The traditional solution for SPAs has been to change the browser URL's hash
fragment identifier In computer hypertext, a URI fragment is a character string (computer science), string of character (computing), characters that refers to a resource (computer science), resource that is subordinate to another, primary resource. The primary resou ...
in accord with the current screen state. This can be achieved with JavaScript, and causes URL history events to be built up within the browser. As long as the SPA is capable of resurrecting the same screen state from information contained within the URL hash, the expected back-button behavior is retained. To further address this issue, the HTML5 specification has introduce
pushState
an

providing programmatic access to the actual URL and browser history.


Analytics

Analytics tools such as Google Analytics rely heavily upon entire new pages loading in the browser, initiated by a new page load. SPAs do not work this way. After the first page load, all subsequent page and content changes are handled internally by the application, which should simply call a function to update the analytics package. Failing to call such a function, the browser never triggers a new page load, nothing gets added to the browser history, and the analytics package has no idea who is doing what on the site.


Security Scanning

Similarly to the problems encountered with search engine crawlers, DAST tools may struggle with these JavaScript-rich applications. Problems can include the lack of hypertext links, memory usage and resources loaded by the SPA typically being made available by an
Application Programming Interface An application programming interface (API) is a way for two or more computer programs to communicate with each other. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how t ...
or API. Single Page Applications are still subject to the same security risks as traditional web pages such as Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), but also a host of other unique vulnerabilities such as Data Exposure via API and Client Side Logic & Client-Side Enforcement of Server-Side Security. In order to effectively scan a Single Page Application, a DAST scanner must be able to navigate the client-side application in a reliable and repeatable manner to allow discovery of all areas of the application and interception of all requests that the application sends to remote servers (e.g. API requests). There are few commercial tools capable of such actions but such tools definitely exist.


Adding page loads to a SPA

It is possible to add page load events to a SPA using the HTML5 history API; this will help integrate analytics. The difficulty comes in managing this and ensuring that everything is being tracked accurately – this involves checking for missing reports and double entries. Some frameworks provide
free Free may refer to: Concept * Freedom, having the ability to do something, without having to obey anyone/anything * Freethought, a position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism * Emancipate, to procur ...
analytics integrations addressing most of the major analytics providers. Developers can integrate them into the application and make sure that everything is working correctly, but there is no need to do everything from scratch.


Speeding up the page load

There are some ways of speeding up the initial load of a SPA, such as selective prerendering of the SPA landing/index page, caching and various code splitting techniques including lazy-loading modules when needed. But it's not possible to get away from the fact that it needs to download the framework, at least some of the application code; and will hit an API for data if the page is dynamic. This is a "pay me now, or pay me later" trade-off scenario. The question of performance and wait-times remains a decision that the developer must make.


Page lifecycle

A SPA is fully loaded in the initial page load and then page regions are replaced or updated with new page fragments loaded from the server on demand. To avoid excessive downloading of unused features, a SPA will often progressively download more features as they become required, either small fragments of the page, or complete screen modules. In this way an analogy exists between "states" in a SPA and "pages" in a traditional website. Because "state navigation" in the same page is analogous to page navigation, in theory, any page-based web site could be converted to single-page replacing in the same page only the changed parts. The SPA approach on the web is similar to the
single-document interface A multiple-document interface (MDI) is a graphical user interface in which multiple windows reside under a single parent window. Such systems often allow child windows to embed other windows inside them as well, creating complex Hierarchy#Nested hi ...
(SDI) presentation technique popular in
native Native may refer to: People * Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth * Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory ** Native Americans (disambiguation) In arts and entert ...
desktop applications.


See also

* Progressive web application (PWA) * Server-side scripting


References


External links


Migrating Multi-page Web Applications to Single-page Ajax Interfaces (Delft University of Technology)

The Single Page Interface Manifesto

Dynamic Rendering
{{Web interfaces Web applications