Silvanus (; meaning "of the woods" in

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

) was a

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...

tutelary deity A tutelary () (also tutelar) is a deity or a spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. The etymology of "tutelary" expresses the concept of safety a ...

of woods and uncultivated lands. As protector of the forest (''sylvestris deus''), he especially presided over plantations and delighted in trees growing wild.

Tibullus Albius Tibullus ( BC19 BC) was a Latin poet and writer of elegies. His first and second books of poetry are extant; many other texts attributed to him are of questionable origins. Little is known about the life of Tibullus. There are only a f ...

II.5.27, 30.

Lucan Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (3 November 39 AD – 30 April 65 AD), better known in English as Lucan (), was a Roman poet, born in Corduba (modern-day Córdoba), in Hispania Baetica. He is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imperial ...

. '' Pharsalia'' III.402.

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...

. '' Naturalis historia'' XII.2. He is also described as a god watching over the fields and husbandmen, protecting in particular the boundaries of fields.

Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ' ...

. '' Epodes'' II.21-22. The similarly named Etruscan deity Selvans may be a borrowing of Silvanus, or not even related in origin.Peter F. Dorcey, ''The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion'' (Brill, 1992), pp. 10–1
online
noting earlier efforts to press an Etruscan etymology on Silvanus. Silvanus is described as the divinity protecting the flocks of cattle, warding off wolves, and promoting their fertility.Virgil. ''Aeneid'' VIII.600-1.

Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write hi ...

. ''De Re Rustica'' 83 Dolabella, a rural engineer of whom only a few pages are known, states that Silvanus was the first to set up stones to mark the limits of fields, and that every estate had three ''Silvani:'' * a ''Silvanus domesticus'' (in inscriptions called ''Silvanus Larum'' and ''Silvanus sanctus sacer Larum'') * a ''Silvanus agrestis'' (also called ''salutaris'', literally "of the fields" or "saviour"), who was worshipped by shepherds, and * a ''Silvanus orientalis'', literally "of the east", that is, the god presiding over the point at which an estate begins. Hence ''Silvani'' were often referred to in the plural.

Etymology

The name ''Silvānus'' () is a derivation from

''silva'' ('forest, wood'). It is

cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical ef ...

with the Latin words ''silvester'' ('wild, not cultivated'), ''silvicola'' ('inhabiting woodlands') or ''silvaticus'' ('of woodlands or scrub'). The etymology of ''silva'' is unclear.

Attributes and associations

Like other gods of woods and flocks, Silvanus is described as fond of music; the

syrinx In classical Greek mythology, Syrinx ( Greek Σύριγξ) was a nymph and a follower of Artemis, known for her chastity. Pursued by the amorous god Pan, she ran to a river's edge and asked for assistance from the river nymphs. In answer, ...

was sacred to him, and he is mentioned along with the Pans and Nymphs. Later speculators even identified Silvanus with Pan, Faunus, Inuus and

Aegipan Aegipan ( grc, Αἰγίπαν, Αἰγίπανος, "Goat-Pan") was a mythological being, either distinct from or identical to Pan. His story appears to be of late origin. Mythology According to Hyginus, Aegipan was the son of Zeus (some sour ...

. He must have been associated with the Italian

Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Roman god of war. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin at ...

, for Cato refers to him consistently as ''Mars Silvanus''. These references to Silvanus as an aspect of Mars combined with his association with forests and glades, give context to the worship of Silvanus as the giver of the art (techne) of forest warfare. In particular the initiation rituals of the

evocati An ''evocatus'' (plural ''evocati'') was a soldier in the Ancient Roman army who had served out his time and obtained an honorable discharge (''honesta missio'') but had voluntarily enlisted again at the invitation of the consul or other commander. ...

appear to have referenced Silvanus as a protective god of raiding for women and cattle, perhaps preserving elements of earlier Etruscan worship. In the provinces outside of Italy, Silvanus was identified with numerous native gods: :*

Sucellos In Gallo-Roman religion, Sucellus or Sucellos () was a god shown carrying a large mallet (or hammer) and an ''olla'' (or barrel). Originally a Celtic god, his cult flourished not only among Gallo-Romans, but also to some extent among the neighbo ...

, Poeninus, Sinquas and Tettus in

Gaul Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...

and

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...

. :*Callirius, Cocidius and Vinotonus in Britain. A Romano-Celtic Temple containing several plaques dedicated to ''Silvanus Callirius'' has been found at

Camulodunum Camulodunum (; la, ), the Ancient Roman name for what is now Colchester in Essex, was an important castrum and city in Roman Britain, and the first capital of the province. A temporary "strapline" in the 1960s identifying it as the "oldest re ...

(modern

Colchester Colchester ( ) is a city in Essex, in the East of England. It had a population of 122,000 in 2011. The demonym is Colcestrian. Colchester occupies the site of Camulodunum, the first major city in Roman Britain and its first capital. Colch ...

). :*Calaedicus in

Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...

. :*The Mogiae in

Pannonia Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now west ...

. :* Selvans in

Etruria Etruria () was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now most of Tuscany, northern Lazio, and northern and western Umbria. Etruscan Etruria The ancient people of Etruria are identified as Etruscans. Thei ...

(though the validity of this identification has been contested). :* Silenus, a Greek God, merged with Silvanus in Latin Literature. :* Pan (god of forests, pastures, and shepherds), in Greco-Roman mythology. :*

Aristaeus A minor god in Greek mythology, attested mainly by Athenian writers, Aristaeus (; ''Aristaios'' (Aristaîos); lit. “Most Excellent, Most Useful”), was the culture hero credited with the discovery of many useful arts, including bee-keepin ...

, a god/patron of

shepherd A shepherd or sheepherder is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards flocks of sheep. ''Shepherd'' derives from Old English ''sceaphierde (''sceap'' 'sheep' + ''hierde'' ' herder'). ''Shepherding is one of the world's oldest occupations, ...

s, harvest and other

rural In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas and areas with forestry typically are de ...

arts. The Slavic god Porewit has similarities with Silvanus.

Xavier Delamarre Xavier Delamarre (; born 5 June 1954) is a French linguist, lexicographer, and diplomat. He is regarded as one of the world's foremost authorities on the Gaulish language. Since 2019, he has been an associate researcher for the CNRS- PSL AOrOc ...

suggests the epithet ''Callirius'' may be related to Breton theonym ''Riocalat(is)'' (attested in Cumberland Quarries), and both mean "(God) With Wild Horses".

Worship

The sacrifices offered to Silvanus consisted of grapes, ears of grain, milk, meat, wine and pigs.

Juvenal Decimus Junius Juvenalis (), known in English as Juvenal ( ), was a Roman poet active in the late first and early second century CE. He is the author of the collection of satirical poems known as the '' Satires''. The details of Juvenal's life ...

. VI.446, with associated scholia. In Cato's '' De Agricultura'' an offering to ''Mars Silvanus'' is described, to ensure the health of

cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ...

; it is stated there that his connection with agriculture referred to only the labour performed by men, and that females were excluded from his worship. (Compare Bona Dea for a Roman deity from whose worship men were excluded.)

Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...

relates that in the very earliest times the Tyrrhenian

Pelasgians The name Pelasgians ( grc, Πελασγοί, ''Pelasgoí'', singular: Πελασγός, ''Pelasgós'') was used by classical Greek writers to refer either to the predecessors of the Greeks, or to all the inhabitants of Greece before the emergenc ...

had dedicated a grove and a festival to Silvanus.

In literature

In works of Latin poetry and art, Silvanus always appears as an old man, but as cheerful and in love with Pomona.Horace. ''

Carmina The ''Odes'' ( la, Carmina) are a collection in four books of Latin lyric poems by Horace. The Horatian ode format and style has been emulated since by other poets. Books 1 to 3 were published in 23 BC. A fourth book, consisting of 15 poems, was ...

'' III.8. Virgil represents him as carrying the trunk of a

cypress Cypress is a common name for various coniferous trees or shrubs of northern temperate regions that belong to the family Cupressaceae. The word ''cypress'' is derived from Old French ''cipres'', which was imported from Latin ''cypressus'', the l ...

( el, δενδροφόρος),Virgil. ''Georgics'' I.20-1. about which the following myth is told. Silvanus – or

Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...

according to other versions – was in love with

Cyparissus In Greek mythology, Cyparissus or Kyparissos ( Ancient Greek: Κυπάρισσος, "cypress") was a boy beloved by Apollo or in some versions by other deities. In the best-known version of the story, the favorite companion of Cyparissus was a ta ...

, and once by accident killed a pet hind belonging to Cyparissus. The latter died of grief, and was metamorphosed into a cypress.Virgil. ''

Aeneid The ''Aeneid'' ( ; la, Aenē̆is or ) is a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the fall of Troy and travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of ...

'' III.680. In

Edmund Spenser Edmund Spenser (; 1552/1553 – 13 January 1599) was an English poet best known for '' The Faerie Queene'', an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen o ...

's epic poem '' The Faerie Queene'' (1590–96), Silvanus appears in Canto VI of Book I. His 'wyld woodgods' (Stanza 9) save the lost and frightened Lady Una from being molested by ''Sans loy'' and take her to him. They treat her as a Queen because of her great beauty. Spenser writes in Stanza 14: :::So towards old ''Syluanus'' they did her bring; :::Who with the noyse awaked, commeth out, :::To weet the cause, his weake steps gouerning, :::And aged limbs on Cypresse stadle stout, :::And with an yvie twyne his wast is girt gud about.

References

Bibliography

* *

External links

Cato's ''De Agricultura'':
an offering to Mars Silvanus (e-text in English and Latin) {{DEFAULTSORT:Silvanus (Mythology) Roman gods Nature gods LGBT themes in mythology Martian deities