Sandalwood is a class of

wood Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...

s from trees in the

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

Santalum ''Santalum'' is a genus of woody flowering plants in the Santalaceae family, the best known and commercially valuable of which is the Indian sandalwood tree, '' S. album''. Members of the genus are trees or shrubs. Most are root parasites w ...

''. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades.

Sandalwood oil Sandalwood oil is an essential oil obtained from the steam distillation of chips and billets cut from the heartwood of various species of sandalwood trees, mainly ''Santalum album'' (Indian sandalwood) and ''Santalum spicatum'' (Australian sandal ...

is extracted from the woods for use. Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world. Both the wood and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that has been highly valued for centuries. Consequently, some species of these slow-growing trees have suffered

over-harvesting Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term ap ...

in the past.

Nomenclature

The

nomenclature Nomenclature (, ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally ag ...

and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species' historical and widespread use. Etymologically it is ultimately derived from Sanskrit चन्दनं ''Chandana'' (''čandana''), meaning "wood for burning incense" and related to ''candrah'', "shining, glowing" and the Latin ''candere'', to shine or glow. It arrived in English via

Late Greek Late Greek refers to writings in the Greek language in Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine period; and in other words, from about the late 2nd century AD until about the late 7th century AD.See the definitions of "Late Greek" aDictionary.comanT ...

Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned ...

and

Old French Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intel ...

in the 14th or 15th century. The sandalwood is indigenous to the tropical belt of the peninsular India, Malay Archipelago and northern Australia The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba.

True sandalwoods

Santalum album - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-128

Sandalwoods are medium-sized

hemiparasitic A parasitic plant is a plant that derives some or all of its nutritional requirements from another living plant. They make up about 1% of angiosperms and are found in almost every biome. All parasitic plants develop a specialized organ called the ...

trees, and part of the same botanical family as European

mistletoe Mistletoe is the common name for obligate hemiparasitic plants in the order Santalales. They are attached to their host tree or shrub by a structure called the haustorium, through which they extract water and nutrients from the host plant. ...

. Sandalwood is indigenous to the tropical belt of the peninsular India, Malay Archipelago and northern Australia. The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba. It spread to other regions through

Incense trade route The Incense Trade Route was an ancient network of major land and sea trading routes linking the Mediterranean world with eastern and southern sources of incense, spices and other luxury goods, stretching from Mediterranean ports across the Le ...

by the vast Indian and Arab mercantile networks and the Chinese maritime trade routes until the sixteenth century CE. The sandalwood of peninsular India and Malay Archipelago as the primary trading center of that time, supported most consumption of sandalwood in East Asia and West Asia during

. before the commercialization of sandalwood plantation (''

Santalum spicatum ''Santalum spicatum'', the Australian sandalwood, also Waang and other names (Noongar) and Dutjahn ( Martu), is a tree native to semi-arid areas at the edge of Southwest Australia, in the state of Western Australia. It is also found in South A ...

'') in Australia and China. Although the sandalwood album (''

Santalum album ''Santalum album'', or Indian sandalwood, is a small tropical tree, and the traditional source of sandalwood oil. It is native to southern India and Southeast Asia. It is considered sacred in some religions like Hinduism, and some cultures plac ...

'') is still considered have the best and original quality in terms of religion and alternative medicine. Australian sandalwood (''

'') is marketed as the notable members of this group today by merchants because of its stable sources; others in the genus also have fragrant wood. These are found in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Australia, Indonesia, Hawaii, and other

Pacific Islands Collectively called the Pacific Islands, the islands in the Pacific Ocean are further categorized into three major island groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Depending on the context, the term ''Pacific Islands'' may refer to one of se ...

, * '' S. album'' is a threatened species indigenous to Southeast Asia and Southern India. The main distribution is in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba. In India, the principal sandal tracts are most parts of Karnataka and adjoining districts of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Although sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal are government-owned and their harvest is controlled, many trees are illegally cut down. Sandalwood oil prices have risen to $3000 per liter recently. * '' S. ellipticum'', '' S. freycinetianum'', and '' S. paniculatum'', the

Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...

an sandalwood (''iliahi''), were also used and considered high quality. These three species were exploited between 1790 and 1825 before the supply of trees ran out (a fourth species, '' S. haleakalae'', occurs only in subalpine areas and was never exported). Although ''S. freycinetianum'' and ''S. paniculatum'' are relatively common today, they have not regained their former abundance or size, and ''S. ellipticum'' remains rare. * '' S. yasi'', a sandalwood from Fiji and Tonga. * '' S. spicatum'' is used by aromatherapists and perfumers. The oil concentration differs considerably from other ''Santalum'' species. In the 1840s, sandalwood was Western Australia’s biggest export earner. Oil was distilled for the first time in 1875, and by the turn of the 20th century, production of Australian sandalwood oil was intermittent. However, in the late 1990s, Western Australian sandalwood oil enjoyed a revival and by 2009 had peaked at more than per year – much of which went to the fragrance industries in Europe. Although overall production has decreased, by 2011, a significant percentage of its production was heading to the

chewing tobacco Chewing tobacco is a type of smokeless tobacco product that is placed between the cheek and lower gum to draw out its flavor. Some users chew it, others do not. It consists of coarsely chopped aged tobacco that is flavored and often sweetened; ...

industry in India alongside Indian sandalwood – the chewing tobacco market being the largest market for both oils in 2012. * Other species: Commercially, various other species, not belonging to ''Santalum'' species, are also used as sandalwood.

Unrelated plants

Various unrelated plants with scented wood and also referred to as sandalwood, but not in the true sandalwood genus: *''

Adenanthera pavonina ''Adenanthera pavonina'' is a perennial and non-climbing species of leguminous tree. Its uses include food and drink, traditional medicine, and timber. Common names and synonyms ''Adenanthera pavonina'' is commonly called Red Lucky Seed. Ot ...

'' – sandalwood tree, red or false red sandalwood *''

Baphia nitida ''Baphia nitida'', also known as camwood, barwood, and African sandalwood (although not a true sandalwood), is a shrubby, leguminous, hard-wooded tree from central west Africa. It is a small understorey, evergreen tree, often planted in villag ...

'' – camwood, also known as African sandalwood *''

Eremophila mitchellii ''Eremophila mitchellii'', known commonly as false sandalwood and several other names, is a flowering plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae and is endemic to Australia. It is a glabrous large shrub or small tree with flaky bark, white or ...

'' – sandalwood; false sandalwood (also sandalbox) *''

Myoporum platycarpum ''Myoporum platycarpum'', known by several common names including sugarwood, false sandalwood and ngural is a plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae. It is rounded with bright green foliage as a young shrub and roughly fissured, dark gr ...

'' – sandalwood; false sandalwood *''

Myoporum sandwicense ''Myoporum sandwicense'', commonly known as ''naio'', bastard sandalwood or false sandalwood is a species of flowering plant in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae. It is a tree or shrub highly variable in its form, the size and shape of its le ...

'' – bastard sandalwood, false sandalwood *''

Osyris lanceolata ''Osyris lanceolata'', also known as African sandalwood or Camwood, is used for its scented wood and to extract essential oil. The hemi-parasitic plant is found from South Africa to Zimbabwe and east Africa, including Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda ...

'' – African sandalwood *'' Osyris tenuifolia'' – east African sandalwood

Production

Producing commercially valuable sandalwood with high levels of fragrance oils requires Indian sandalwood ('' S. album'') trees to be a minimum of 15 years old – the yield, quality and volume are still to be clearly understood. Yield of oil tends to vary depending on the age and location of the tree; usually, the older trees yield the highest oil content and quality. Australia is the largest producer of ''S. album'', with the majority grown around Kununurra, in the far north of the state by Quintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services), which in 2017 controlled around 80 per cent of the world's supply of Indian sandalwood, and Santanol. India used to be the world's biggest producer, but it has been overtaken by Australia in the 21st century.

Over-exploitation Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term ap ...

is partly to blame for the decline. Australian sandalwood ('' S. spicatum'') is grown in commercial plantations throughout the wheatbelt of Western Australia, where it has been an important part of the economy since colonial times. WA has the largest plantation resource in the world. Sandalwood is expensive compared to other types of woods, so to maximize profit, sandalwood is harvested by removing the entire tree instead of sawing it down at the trunk close to ground level. This way wood from the stump and root, which possesses high levels of sandalwood oil, can also be processed and sold. Australian sandalwood is mostly harvested and sold in log form, graded for heartwood content. The species is unique in that the white sapwood does not require removal before distilling the oil. The logs are either processed to distill the essential oil, or made into powders for making

incense Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also b ...

. Indian sandalwood, used mainly for oil extraction, does require removal of the sapwood prior to distillation. , Australian Sandalwood oil sells for around per , while Indian Sandalwood oil, due to its higher

alpha santalol α-Santalol, also referred to as alpha-santalol, is an organic compound that is classified as a sesquiterpene. It comprises about 55% of the oil of sandalwood, another less abundant component being β-santalol. As of 2002, about 60 tons of sa ...

content, is priced at about per kg. Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world, along with

African blackwood ''Dalbergia melanoxylon'' (African blackwood, grenadilla, or mpingo) is a flowering plant in the family Fabaceae, native to seasonally dry regions of Africa from Senegal east to Eritrea and south to the north-eastern parts of South Africa. The ...

, pink ivory,

agarwood Agarwood, aloeswood, eaglewood or gharuwood is a fragrant dark resinous wood used in incense, perfume, and small carvings. This resinous wood is most commonly referred to as "Oud" or "Oudh". It is formed in the heartwood of aquilaria trees wh ...

and

ebony Ebony is a dense black/brown hardwood, coming from several species in the genus '' Diospyros'', which also contains the persimmons. Unlike most woods, ebony is dense enough to sink in water. It is finely textured and has a mirror finish when ...

Uses

Fragrance

has a distinctive soft, warm, smooth, creamy, and milky precious-wood scent. Its quality and scent profile is greatly influenced by the age of the tree, location and the skill of the distiller. It imparts a long-lasting, woody base to perfumes from the oriental, woody, ''fougère'', and ''chypre'' families, as well as a fixative to floral and citrus fragrances. When used in smaller proportions in a

perfume Perfume (, ; french: parfum) is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds (fragrances), fixatives and solvents, usually in liquid form, used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces an agreeable scent ...

, it acts as a fixative, enhancing the longevity of other, more volatile, materials in the composite. Sandalwood is also a key ingredient in the "floriental" (floral- ambery) fragrance family – when combined with white florals such as

jasmine Jasmine ( taxonomic name: ''Jasminum''; , ) is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family (Oleaceae). It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania. Jasmines are widely culti ...

, ylang ylang,

gardenia ''Gardenia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the coffee family, Rubiaceae, native to the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Madagascar and Pacific Islands, and Australia. The genus was named by Carl Linnaeus and John Ellis af ...

plumeria ''Plumeria'' (), known as frangipani, is a genus of flowering plants in the subfamily Rauvolfioideae, of the family Apocynaceae. Most species are deciduous shrubs or small trees. The species variously are endemic to Mexico, Central America, and ...

orange blossom Orange Blossom is a French band that plays a mix of electronic and world music. The band was formed in Nantes in 1993 with Pierre-Jean Chabot (known as ''PJ Chabot'') on violin and Jean-Christophe Waechter (known as ''Jay C.'') on percussions ...

tuberose ''Agave amica'', formerly ''Polianthes tuberosa'', the tuberose, is a perennial plant in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Agavoideae, extracts of which are used as a note in perfumery. Now widely grown as an ornamental plant, the species was o ...

, etc. Sandalwood oil in India is widely used in the

cosmetic industry The cosmetic industry describes the industry that manufactures and distributes cosmetic products. These include colour cosmetics, like foundation and mascara, skincare such as moisturisers and cleansers, haircare such as shampoos, conditioners a ...

. The main source of true sandalwood, ''S. album'', is a protected species, and demand for it cannot be met. Many species of plants are traded as "sandalwood". The genus ''Santalum'' has more than 19 species. Traders often accept oil from closely related species, as well as from unrelated plants such as West Indian sandalwood ('' Amyris balsamifera'') in the family

Rutaceae The Rutaceae is a family, commonly known as the rueRUTACEAE
in BoDD – Botanical Der ...

or bastard sandalwood (''Myoporum sandwicense'',

Myoporaceae Myoporaceae was a family of plants, found mostly in Australia, which included the following genera: * '' Diocirea'' * '' Eremophila'', also known as emu bush * '' Myoporum'', also known as Boobiala In the APG II system (continued in the APG III ...

). However, most woods from these alternative sources lose their aroma within a few months or years.

Isobornyl cyclohexanol Isobornyl cyclohexanol (IBCH, Sandenol) is an organic compound used primarily as a fragrance because of its aroma which is similar to sandalwood oil. Its chemical structure is closely related to that of both α-Santalol and β-Santalol, which ar ...

is a synthetic fragrance chemical produced as an alternative to the natural product. Sandalwood's main components are the two isomers of santalol (about 75%). It is used in

aromatherapy Aromatherapy is based on the usage of aromatic materials including essential oils and other aroma compounds, with claims for improving psychological and physical well-being. It is offered as a complementary therapy or as a form of alternative ...

and to prepare

soap Soap is a salt of a fatty acid used in a variety of cleansing and lubricating products. In a domestic setting, soaps are surfactants usually used for washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping. In industrial settings, soaps are us ...

Idols/Sculptures

Sandalwood lends itself well to carving and has thus, traditionally, been a wood of choice for idols and sculptures of Hindu Gods.

Technology

Due to its low

fluorescence Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence. In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower photon energy, tha ...

and optimal

refractive index In optics, the refractive index (or refraction index) of an optical medium is a dimensionless number that gives the indication of the light bending ability of that medium. The refractive index determines how much the path of light is bent, ...

, sandalwood oil is often employed as an immersion oil within ultraviolet and

fluorescence microscopy A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence instead of, or in addition to, scattering, reflection, and attenuation or absorption, to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances. "Fluorescence microscop ...

Food

Aboriginal Australians Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, such as Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands, and Groote Eylandt, but excluding the Torres Strait ...

eat the seed kernels, nuts, and fruit of local sandalwoods, such as the quandong ('' S. acuminatum''). Early Europeans in Australia used quandong in cooking

damper A damper is a device that deadens, restrains, or depresses. It may refer to: Music * Damper pedal, a device that mutes musical tones, particularly in stringed instruments * A mute for various brass instruments Structure * Damper (flow), a mechan ...

by infusing it with its leaves, and in making jams, pies, and chutneys from the fruit. In

Scandinavia Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and S ...

, pulverised bark from red sandalwood ('' Pterocarpus soyauxii'') is used - with other tropical spices - when marinating

anchovies An anchovy is a small, common forage fish of the family Engraulidae. Most species are found in marine waters, but several will enter brackish water, and some in South America are restricted to fresh water. More than 140 species are placed in 1 ...

and some types of

pickled herring Pickled herring is a traditional way of preserving herring as food by pickling or curing. Most cured herring uses a two-step curing process: it is first cured with salt to extract water; then the salt is removed and the herring is brined in ...

such as '' matjes'',

sprat Sprat is the common name applied to a group of forage fish belonging to the genus '' Sprattus'' in the family Clupeidae. The term also is applied to a number of other small sprat-like forage fish ('' Clupeoides'', '' Clupeonella'', '' Corica'' ...

, and certain types of traditional ''spegesild'', inducing a reddish colour and slightly perfumed flavour. Present-day chefs have begun experimenting in using the nut as a substitute for

macadamia ''Macadamia'' is a genus of four species of trees in the flowering plant family Proteaceae. They are indigenous to Australia, native to northeastern New South Wales and central and southeastern Queensland specifically. Two species of the genus ...

nuts or a

bush food Bush tucker, also called bush food, is any food native to Australia and used as sustenance by Indigenous Australians, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, but it can also describe any native flora or fauna used for culinary or ...

substitute for almonds, hazelnuts, and others in Southeast Asian-styled cuisine. The oil is also used as a flavour component in different food items, including candy, ice cream, baked food, puddings, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and gelatin. The flavouring is used at levels below 10 ppm, the highest possible level for use in food products being 90 ppm.

Distillation

Oil is extracted from Sandalwood through distillation. Many different methods are used, including

steam distillation Steam distillation is a separation process that consists in distilling water together with other volatile and non-volatile components. The steam from the boiling water carries the vapor of the volatiles to a condenser; both are cooled and re ...

, water distillation, CO₂ extraction, and solvent extractions. Steam distillation is the most common method used by sandalwood companies. It occurs in a four-step process, incorporating boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation. Water is heated to high temperatures () and is then passed through the wood. The oil is very tightly bound within the cellular structure of the wood, but can be released by the high heat of the steam. The mixture of steam and oil is then cooled and separated so that the essential oil can be collected. This process is much longer than any other essential oil's distillation, taking 14 to 36 hours to complete, but generally produces much higher quality oil. Water, or hydro, distillation is the more traditional method of sandalwood extraction which involves soaking the wood in water and then boiling it until the oil is released. This method is not used as much anymore because of the high costs and time associated with heating large quantities of water.

Religion

Hinduism

Sandalwood is very sacred in the Hindu

Ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...

and is known in Sanskrit as ''chandana.'' The wood is used for worshipping the deities, and it is said that goddess Lakshmi lives in the sandalwood tree; therefore, it is also known as ''Srigandha''. The wood of the tree is made into a paste by grinding sandalwood against stone slab, and this paste is integral to rituals and ceremonies, to make religious utensils, to decorate the icons of the deities, and to calm the mind during meditation and prayer. It is also distributed to devotees, who apply it to their foreheads or necks and chests. Sandalwood paste is used for most pujas both in temples and home altars performed in private households. The paste is prepared by grinding wood by hand against granite slabs shaped for this purpose. With the gradual addition of water, a thick paste forms (called ''kalabham'' "കളഭം" in

Malayalam language Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry ( Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam wa ...

and ''gandha'' ಗಂಧ in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

) and is mixed with

saffron Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma (botany), stigma and stigma (botany)#style, styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly ...

or other such pigments to make ''chandanam''. ''Chandanam'', further mixed with herbs, perfumes, pigments, and some other compounds, results in ''javadhu''. ''Kalabham, chandanam,'' and ''javadhu'' are dried and used as ''kalabham'' powder, ''chandanam'' powder, and ''javadhu'' powder, respectively. ''Chandanam'' powder is very popular in India and is also used in Nepal. In Tirupati after religious tonsure, sandalwood paste is applied to protect the skin. In

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

and Ayurveda, sandalwood is thought to bring one closer to the divine. Thus, it is one of the most used holy elements in Hindu and Vedic societies.

Jainism

Sandalwood use is an integral part of daily practices of Jainism. Sandalwood paste mixed with saffron is used to worship '' tirthankar'' Jain deities. Sandalwood powder is showered as blessings by Jain monks and nuns (''sadhus'' and ''sadhvis'') to their disciples and followers. Sandalwood garlands are used to dress the body during Jain cremation ceremonies. During the festival of

Mahamastakabhisheka The ''Mahamastakabhisheka'' ("Grand Consecration", "The Great Indian Festival") refers to the '' abhiṣeka'' (anointment) of the Jain images when held on a large scale. The most famous of such consecrations is the anointment of the Bahubali ...

that is held once in every 12 years, the statue of Gommateshwara is then bathed and anointed with libations such as milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and sprinkled with powders of sandalwood,

turmeric Turmeric () is a flowering plant, ''Curcuma longa'' (), of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae, the rhizomes of which are used in cooking. The plant is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast ...

, and

vermilion Vermilion (sometimes vermillion) is a color, color family, and pigment most often made, since antiquity until the 19th century, from the powdered mineral cinnabar (a form of mercury sulfide, which is toxic) and its corresponding color. It i ...

Buddhism

Sandalwood is mentioned in various ''suttas'' of the

Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During ...

. In some Buddhist traditions, sandalwood is considered to be of the ''padma'' ( lotus) group and attributed to Amitabha Buddha. Sandalwood scent is believed by some to transform one's desires and maintain a person's alertness while in

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...

. It is also one of the most popular scents used when offering

to the Buddha and the guru.

Sufism

In ''

sufi Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, r ...

'' tradition, sandalwood paste is applied on the ''sufi''’s grave by the disciples as a mark of devotion. The tradition is borrowed from indian rituals and is practiced particularly among the

Indian Subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...

disciples. In the Tamil culture irrespective of religious identity, sandalwood paste or powder is applied to the graves of sufis as a mark of devotion and respect.

East Asian religions

East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea ...

, sandalwood (檀木), is the most commonly used incense material by the Chinese,

Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...

and

Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...

in worship and various ceremonies. However, some sects of

Taoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Tao ...

s, following the Ming Dynasty Taoist Manual, do not use lakawood but sandalwood (as well as

benzoin resin Benzoin or benjamin (corrupted pronunciation) is a balsamic resin obtained from the bark of several species of trees in the genus '' Styrax''. It is used in perfumes and some kinds of incense and as a flavoring and medicine (see tincture of b ...

frankincense Frankincense (also known as olibanum) is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus '' Boswellia'' in the family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French ('high-quality incense'). There are several species ...

, foreign produced) incense, in worship.The Ming Dynasty Taoist manual 《天皇至道太清玉冊》 states: 「降真香，乃祀天帝之靈香也。除此之外，沉速次之。信靈香可以達天帝之靈。所忌者，安息香、乳香、檀香，外夷所合成之香，天律有禁，切宜慎之。」 Acronychia pedunculata is the spiritual incense of offering to the Heavenly Emperor. Apart from this type, agarwood/aloeswood (Aquilaria malaccensis) then Aquilaria sinensis are the next best. It is believed that this spiritual incense can ascend to reach the spirit of the Heavenly Emperor. Those that are to be avoided are benzoin resin, frankincense, sandalwood, foreign produced incense that violate the Heavenly Law and so one must be careful to observe this."] In

Korean Shamanism Korean shamanism or Mu-ism is a religion from Korea. In the Korean language, alternative terms for the tradition are ''musok'' () and ''mugyo'' (무교, 巫敎). Scholars of religion have classified it as a folk religion. There is no central aut ...

, sandalwood is considered the

Tree of Life The tree of life is a fundamental archetype in many of the world's mythological, religious, and philosophical traditions. It is closely related to the concept of the sacred tree.Giovino, Mariana (2007). ''The Assyrian Sacred Tree: A Hist ...

. It was trasmitted to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan during the eastward expansion of Buddhism.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrians offer sandalwood twigs to the ''afarganyu,'' the urn in which the fire is kept at the

fire temple A fire temple, Agiary, Atashkadeh ( fa, آتشکده), Atashgah () or Dar-e Mehr () is the place of worship for the followers of Zoroastrianism, the ancient religion of Iran (Persia). In the Zoroastrian religion, fire (see '' atar''), together w ...

(called ''agiyari'' in Gujarati and ''dar-e mehr'' in Persian), to keep the fire burning during religious ceremonies. After the firekeeping priests complete the ceremony, attendees are allowed to come up to the ''afarganyu'' and place their own pieces of sandalwood into the fire. Fire has been a sacred symbol in the Zoroastrian religion since ancient times and it is considered very important to keep the fires in the temples constantly burning. Because of its high sensitivity to fire, sandalwood works very well for this. Also, the wood has been accepted by the

Yasna Yasna (;"Yasna"
'' three grades of fire in the

, including the Atash Dadgahs. Sandalwood is not offered to the ''divo'', a smaller lamp that is kept in the homes of Zoroastrians. Often, money is offered to the ''

mobad A Mobed, Mowbed, or Mobad (Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭢𐭥𐭯𐭲) is a Zoroastrian cleric of a particular rank. Unlike an '' herbad'' (''ervad''), a ''mobed'' is qualified to serve as celebrant priest at the Yasna ceremony and other higher liturgic ...

'' (for religious expenditures) along with the sandalwood. Sandalwood is called ''sukhad'' in the Zoroastrian community. The sandalwood in the fire temple is often more expensive to buy than at a Zoroastrian store. It is often a source of income for the fire temple.

References

External links

Plant Cultures: botany, history and use of sandalwood

IUCN Threatened Species: ''Santalum album''
{{Wood products Wood Incense material Perfume ingredients Endangered plants * Sacred trees in Hinduism Plants in Hinduism