The Osco-Umbrian, Sabellic or Sabellian languages are an extinct group of Italic languages, the

Indo-European languages The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...

that were spoken in Central and Southern

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

by the Osco-Umbrians before being replaced by

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

, as the power of

Ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...

expanded. Their written attestations developed from the middle of the 1st millennium BC to the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD. The languages are known almost exclusively from inscriptions, principally of

Oscan Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy. The language is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of the Italic languages. Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian. Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including ...

and

Umbrian Umbrian is an extinct Italic language formerly spoken by the Umbri in the ancient Italian region of Umbria. Within the Italic languages it is closely related to the Oscan group and is therefore associated with it in the group of Osco-Umbrian ...

, but there are also some Osco-Umbrian loanwords in Latin. Besides the two major branches of Oscan and Umbrian (and their dialects), South Picene may represent a third branch of Sabellic. The whole linguistic Sabellic area, however, might be considered a

dialect continuum A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated varie ...

. Paucity of evidence from most of the "minor dialects" contributes to the difficulty of making these determinations.

Relationship with the Italic languages

Following an original theory by Antoine Meillet, the Osco-Umbrian languages were traditionally considered a branch of the Italic languages, a language family that grouped

and Faliscan together with several other related languages. However, this unitary scheme was criticized by, among others, Alois Walde, Vittore Pisani and

Giacomo Devoto Giacomo Devoto (19 July 1897 – 25 December 1974) was an Italian historical linguist and one of the greatest exponents of the twentieth century of the discipline. He was born in Genoa and died in Florence. Career In 1939 he founded with Bruno Mig ...

, who proposed a classification of the Italic languages into two distinct Indo-European branches. This view gained some acceptance in the second half of the 20th century, although the exact processes of formation and penetration into Italy remains the object of research.Villar, cit., pp. 447–482. However, proponents such as Rix would later reject the idea, and the unitary theory (proposing the descent of all Italic languages from a unique common ancestor) remains dominant. In any case, it is plausible that the spread of all those languages took place through progressive inflows of Indo-European populations of eastern origin, with Osci and Umbri reaching the Italian peninsula after Latins and Falisci, but before Iapygians and Messapians.

Historical, social and cultural aspects

The two main branches of the Sabellic languages, spoken in the heart of the Italian peninsula, are

in the south and

to the north of Oscan. Included among the Sabellic languages are:

Volscian Volscian was a Sabellic Italic language, which was spoken by the Volsci and closely related to Oscan and Umbrian. Overview Volscian is attested in an inscription found in Velitrae (Velletri), dating probably from early in the 3rd century BC; it ...

Sabine The Sabines (; lat, Sabini; it, Sabini, all exonyms) were an Italic people who lived in the central Apennine Mountains of the ancient Italian Peninsula, also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome. The Sabines di ...

South Picene South Picene (also known as Paleo-Sabellic, Mid-Adriatic or Eastern Italic) is an extinct Italic language belonging to the Sabellic subfamily. It is apparently unrelated to the North Picene language, which is not understood and therefore unclas ...

, Marsian,

Paeligni The Paeligni or Peligni were an Italic tribe who lived in the Valle Peligna, in what is now Abruzzo, central Italy. History The Paeligni are first mentioned as a member of a confederacy that included the Marsi, Marrucini, and Vestini, with which ...

, Hernican, Marrucinian and Pre-Samnite. Aequian and Vestinian have traditionally been ascribed to either the Oscan group or the Umbrian group. However, they are all poorly attested, and such a division is not supported by evidence. It appears that they may have formed part of a

, with Umbrian in the north, Oscan in the south and the 'Sabellic' languages in between (see next section) having features of both. However, there were also colonies that spoke Oscan, scattered throughout Southern Italy and Sicily. Oscan was the language of the Samnites, Samnite tribes, powerful enemies of the Romans, who took years to subdue them (the Samnite Wars, Samnite wars took place from 370 BC to 290 BC). These languages are known from a few hundred inscriptions dating from between 400 BC and the 1st century AD. In Pompeii there are numerous Oscan inscriptions, such as dedications in public buildings and signs.

began a process of decline when the Umbrians were subdued by the Romans and the process of Romanization (cultural), Romanisation led to its demise. Of all the Osco-Umbrian languages, it is the one that is the best known, mainly because of the Iguvine Tablets.

Distribution

These languages were spoken in Samnium and in Campania, partly in Apulia, Basilicata, Lucania and Calabria, Bruttium, as well as by the Mamertines in the Sicilian colony of Messana (Messina).

Past usage

''Sabellic'' was originally the collective ethnonym of the Italic people who inhabited central and southern Italy at the time of Roman expansion. The name was later used by Theodor Mommsen in his ''Unteritalische Dialekte'' to describe the pre-Roman dialects of Central Italy that were neither Oscan nor Umbrian. The term is currently used for the Osco-Umbrian languages as a whole. The word "Sabellic" was once applied to all such minor languages, Osco-Umbrian or not. North Picene language, North Picene was included, even though it remains unclear whether it is related.

Classification

The Osco-Umbrian languages or dialects of which testimony is preserved are: *Oscan, with spoken languages in the southern central region of the Italian peninsula, which includes: **

is the best documented language of the group, along with other varieties that are poorly known and considered related to Oscan: *** Marrucinian ***

*Umbrian, with languages spoken in the northern central region of the peninsula. **

** Marsian **Sabines#Language, Sabine **

** Hernican *Picene-Pre-Samnite **

** Pre-Samnite, a language documented in the south, but which seems to contain characteristics closer to South Picene than to Oscan. *Unknown ** Aequian ** Vestinian (Most likely Oscan, like their neighbors Paeligni and Marrucini, whom the Vestini were closely connected with.) Little-documented variants collectively known as "Sabellic dialects" are ascribed without much evidence to the two main groups. Some authors doubt such traditional classification, placing, for example, Aequian and Vestinian in opposite branches, instead of grouping them together.Coleman, 1986

Linguistic description

The Osco-Umbrian languages were fusional language, fusional inflected languages with about 5 different morphological cases in the singular, similar to those of

Differences from Latin

Although the Osco-Umbrian languages are far more poorly attested than Latin, a corpus of a few thousand words' worth of inscriptions has allowed linguists to deduce some cladistic innovations and retentions. For example, while Proto-Indo-European aspirates appear as ''b'', ''d'' and ''h/g'' between vowels in Latin (''medius'' < ''*medʰyos''), the aspirates all appear in Sabellic as ''f'' (Oscan ''mefiai''<'' *medʰyos''). In addition, while Latin retained the Proto-Indo-European labiovelar series ("Q-Italic"), the Osco-Umbrian languages merged them with the labials ("P-Italic"): Latin ''quattuor'', Oscan ''petora''.

Notes

References

*Adams, Douglas Q., and James P. Mallory. 1997. "Italic languages." In ''The encyclopedia of Indo-European culture.'' Edited by James P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, 314–19. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. *Philip Baldi, Baldi, Philip. 2002. ''The foundations of Latin.'' Berlin: de Gruyter. *Beeler, Madison S. 1952. "The relation of Latin and Osco-Umbrian." ''Language'' 28: 435–43. *————. 1966. "The interrelationships within Italic." In ''Ancient Indo-European dialects: Proceedings of the Conference on Indo-European Linguistics held at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 25–27, 1963.'' Edited by Henrik Birnbaum and Jaan Puhvel, 51–58. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. *Buck, Carl Darling. 1928. ''A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, with a collection of inscriptions and a glossary.'' 2nd edition. Boston: Ginn. *Clackson, James. 2015. "Subgrouping in the Sabellian Branch of Indo‐European." ''Transactions of the Philological Society'' 113 (1): 4–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-968X.12034 *Coleman, Robert. 1986. "The Central Italic languages in the period of the Roman expansion." ''Transactions of the Philological Society'' 84(1): 100–131. *de Vaan, Michiel. 2008. ''Etymological dictionary of Latin and the other Italic languages.'' Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 7. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. *Dupraz, Emmanuel. 2012. ''Sabellian Demonstratives: Forms and Functions.'' Leiden: Brill. *Mercado, Angelo. 2012. ''Italic Verse: A Study of the Poetic Remains of Old Latin, Faliscan, and Sabellic.'' Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. *Middei, Edoardo.
Gli antroponimi sabellici in *-ai̭os e le basi onomastiche con morfo-struttura aCCa-
(Sabellian personal names with *-ai̭os and the onomastic bases with the morpho-structural pattern acca-). In: ''Graeco-Latina Brunensia''. 2015, vol. 20, iss. 2, pp. 105-121. *Nishimura, Kanehiro. "Superlative Suffixes *-ismo- and *-isim̥mo in Sabellian Languages." Glotta 81 (2005): 160-83. www.jstor.org/stable/40267191. *Poccetti, Paolo. "Lingue sabelliche". In: ''Palaeohispanica: revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua'' n. 20 (2020): pp. 403-494. DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.399 *Poultney, James. 1951. "Volscians and Umbrians." ''American Journal of Philology'' 72: 113–27. *Tikkanen, Karin. 2009. ''A comparative grammar of Latin and the Sabellian languages: The system of case syntax.'' PhD diss., Uppsala Univ. *Weiss, Michael L. 2010. ''Language and Ritual In Sabellic Italy: The Ritual Complex of the Third and the Fourth Tabulae Iguvinae.'' Leiden: Brill. *Woodard, Roger D. 2008. ''The Ancient Languages of Europe.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

External links

*

, Project fund by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (P.R.I.N. 2017) * {{DEFAULTSORT:Osco-Umbrian languages Osco-Umbrian languages,