SS United States

SS ''United States'' is a retired ocean liner built between 1950 and 1951 for the United States Lines at a cost of (equivalent to $ million in ). The ship is the largest ocean liner constructed entirely in the United States and the fastest ocean liner to cross the Atlantic in either direction, retaining the Blue Riband for the highest average speed since her maiden voyage in 1952 and still holds title today. She was designed by American naval architect William Francis Gibbs and could be converted into a troopship if required by the Navy in time of war. ''United States'' maintained an uninterrupted schedule of transatlantic passenger service until 1969 and was never used as a troopship.

The ship has been sold several times since the 1970s, with each new owner trying unsuccessfully to make the liner profitable. Eventually, the ship's fittings were sold at auction, and hazardous wastes, including asbestos panels throughout the ship, were removed, leaving her almost completely stripped by 1994. Two years later, she was towed to Pier 82 on the Delaware River, in Philadelphia, where she remains today.

Since 2009, a preservation group called the SS ''United States'' Conservancy has been raising funds to save the ship. The group purchased her in 2011 and has drawn up several unrealized plans to restore the ship, one of which included turning the ship into a multi-purpose waterfront complex. In 2015, as its funds dwindled, the group began accepting bids to scrap the ship; however, sufficient donations came in via extended fundraising. Large donations have kept the ship berthed at her Philadelphia dock while the group continues to further investigate restoration plans.

Design and construction

Inspired by the service of the British liners and , which transported hundreds of thousands of US troops to Europe during World War II, the US government sponsored the construction of a large and fast merchant vessel that would be capable of transporting large numbers of soldiers. Designed by American naval architect and marine engineer William Francis Gibbs (1886–1967), the liner's construction was a joint effort by the United States Navy and United States Lines. The US government underwrote $50 million of the $78 million construction cost, with the ship's prospective operators, United States Lines, contributing the remaining $28 million. In exchange, the ship was designed to be easily converted in times of war to a troopship. The ship has a capacity of 15,000 troops, and could also be converted to a hospital ship.

The vessel was constructed from 1950 to 1952 at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Newport News, Virginia. The hull was constructed in a dry dock. ''United States'' was built to exacting Navy specifications, which required that the ship be heavily compartmentalized, and have separate engine rooms to optimize wartime survival. A large part of the construction was prefabricated. The ship's hull comprised 183,000 pieces.

The construction of the ship's superstructure involved the most extensive use of aluminum in any construction project up to that time, which posed a galvanic corrosion challenge to the builders in joining the aluminum superstructure to the steel decks below. However, the extensive use of aluminum meant significant weight savings, as well. ''United States'' had the most powerful steam turbines of any merchant marine vessel at the time, with a total power of delivered to four -diameter manganese-bronze propellers. The ship was capable of steaming astern at over , and could carry enough fuel and stores to steam non-stop for over at a cruising speed of .

Interior design

The interiors were designed by Dorothy Marckwald & Anne Urquhart, the same designers that did the interiors for ''.'' The goal was to "create a modern fresh contemporary look that emphasized simplicity over palatial, restrained elegance over glitz and glitter". They would also hire artists to produce American themed artwork for the public spaces, including Hildreth Meière, Louis Ross, Peter Ostuni, Charles Lin Tissot, William King, Charles Gilbert, Raymond Wendell, Nathaniel Choate, muralist Austin M. Purves, Jr., and sculptor Gwen Lux. Interior décor also included a children's playroom designed by Edward Meshekoff. Markwald and Urquhart were also tasked with the challenge of creating interiors that were completely fireproof.

Fire safety

As a result of a various maritime disasters involving fire, including and , designer William Francis Gibbs specified that the ship incorporate the most rigid fire safety standards.

To minimize the risk of fire, the designers of ''United States'' prescribed using no wood in the ship's framing, accessories, decorations, or interior surfaces, although the galley did feature a wooden butcher's block. Fittings, including all furniture and fabrics, were custom made in glass, metal, and spun-glass fiber, to ensure compliance with fireproofing guidelines set by the US Navy. Asbestos-laden paneling was used extensively in interior structures. The clothes hangers in the luxury cabins were aluminum. The ballroom's grand piano was originally designed to be aluminum, but was made from mahogany and accepted only after a demonstration in which gasoline was poured upon the wood and ignited, without the wood itself ever catching fire.

History

Commercial service (1952–1969)

On her maiden voyage—July 3–7, 1952—''United States'' broke the eastbound transatlantic speed record (held by for the previous 14 years) by more than 10 hours, making the maiden crossing from the Ambrose lightship at New York Harbor to Bishop Rock off Cornwall, UK in 3 days, 10 hours, 40 minutes at an average speed of . and winning the coveted Blue Riband. On her return voyage ''United States'' also broke the westbound transatlantic speed record, also held by ''Queen Mary'', by returning to America in 3 days 12 hours and 12 minutes at an average speed of . In New York her owners were awarded the Hales Trophy, the tangible expression of the Blue Riband competition.

The maximum speed attained by ''United States'' is disputed, as it was once held as a military secret. The issue stems from an alleged speed of that was leaked to reporters by engineers after the first speed trial. In a 1991 issue of ''Popular Mechanics'', author Mark G. Carbonaro wrote that while she could do , that speed was never actually attained. Other sources, including a paper by John J. McMullen & Associates, place the ship's highest possible sustained top speed at .

During the 1950s and early 1960s the ''United States'' was popular for transatlantic travel. She attracted frequent repeat celebrity passengers, such as the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, along with celebrities like Marilyn Monroe, Judy Garland, Cary Grant, Salvador Dalí, Duke Ellington, and Walt Disney, who featured the ship in the 1962 film '' Bon Voyage!''. Another celebrity who was onboard the ship was Claude Jones, a trombonist who played with the aforementioned Ellington. He worked as part of the waitstaff, and died onboard, also in 1962.

By the mid-to-late 1960s, with the advent of jet-powered airliners, the market for transatlantic travel by ship had dwindled. ''America'' was sold in 1964, ''Queen Mary'' was retired in 1967, and ''Queen Elizabeth'' in 1968. ''United States'' was no longer profitable. Unbeknownst to her passengers, crew, or the public, ''United States'' completed her last voyage (Number 400) on November 7, 1969, when she arrived in New York.

In late 1969, before the decision was made to retire the SS United States, United States Lines announced a 55-day Grand Pacific Cruise which was to set sail on January 21, 1970; however, this was canceled in December 1969.

Layup in Virginia and visit to Europe (1969–1996)

After this voyage, the liner sailed to Newport News for her scheduled annual overhaul. While there, the United States Lines announced its decision to withdraw her from service. The decision was due to the skyrocketing expenses of operating the ship and the U.S. government's discontinuation of its operating subsidies. The announcement halted all work on the ship, leaving various tasks incomplete, like the repainting of the funnels; the partially finished paint coating on the funnels can still be faintly seen today. The ship was sealed up, with all furniture, fittings, and crew uniforms left in place.

In June 1970, the ship was relocated across the James River, to the Norfolk International Terminal, in Norfolk, Virginia. In 1973, the United States Lines officially transferred ownership of the vessel to the United States Maritime Administration. In 1976, Norwegian Caribbean Cruise Line (NCL) was reported to be interested in purchasing the ship and converting her into a Caribbean cruise ship, but the U.S. Maritime Administration refused the sale due to the classified naval design elements of the ship and NCL purchased the former instead. The Navy finally declassified the ship's design features in 1977. That same year, a group headed by Harry Katz sought to purchase the ship and dock her in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where she would be used as a hotel and casino. However, nothing came of the plan. ''United States'' was briefly considered by the US Navy to be converted into a troopship or a hospital ship, to be called USS ''United States''. This plan never materialized, being dropped in favor of converting two ''San Clemente'' class supertankers. The liner was seen as obsolete for Naval use by 1978, and was put up for sale by the U.S. Maritime Administration.

In 1980, the vessel was sold for $5 million to a group headed by Seattle developer Richard H. Hadley, who hoped to revitalize the liner in a time share cruise ship format.

In 1984, to pay creditors, the ship's fittings and furniture, which had been left in place since the ship was sealed in 1969, were sold at auction in Norfolk, Virginia. After a week-long auction from October 8–14, 1984, about 3,000 bidders paid $1.65 million for objects from the ship. Some of the artwork and furniture went to various museums including the Mariners' Museum of Newport News, while the largest collection was installed at the now defunct Windmill Point Restaurant in Nags Head, North Carolina.

On March 4, 1989, the vessel was relocated, towed across Hampton Roads to the CSX coal pier in Newport News.

Richard Hadley's plan of a time-share style cruise ship eventually failed financially, and the ship, which had been seized by US marshals, was put up for auction by the U.S. Maritime Administration on April 27, 1992. At auction, Marmara Marine Inc.—which was headed by Edward Cantor and Fred Mayer, but with Julide Sadıkoğlu, of the Turkish shipping family, as majority owner—purchased the ship for $2.6 million.

The ship was towed to Turkey, departing the US on June 4, 1992 and reaching the Sea of Marmara on July 9. She was then towed to Ukraine, where, in Sevastopol Shipyard, she underwent asbestos removal which lasted from 1993 to 1994. The interior of the ship was almost completely stripped down to the bulkheads during this time. Her open lifeboats which would not meet new SOLAS requirements if the ship were to sail again were also removed and scrapped along with their davits.

In the U.S., no plans could be finalized for repurposing the vessel, and in June 1996, she was towed back across the Atlantic, to South Philadelphia.

Layup in Philadelphia (1996–present)

In November 1997, Edward Cantor purchased the ship for $6 million. Two years later, the SS ''United States'' Foundation and the SS ''United States'' Conservancy (then known as the SS ''United States'' Preservation Society, Inc.) succeeded in having the ship placed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Purchase by Norwegian Cruise Line

In 2003, Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL) purchased the ship at auction from Cantor's estate, after his death. NCL's intent was to fully restore the ship to a service role in their newly announced American-flagged Hawaiian passenger service called NCL America. ''United States'' was one of the few ships eligible to enter such service because of the Passenger Service Act, which requires that any vessel engaged in domestic commerce be built and flagged in the U.S. and operated by a predominantly American crew. NCL began an extensive technical review in late 2003, after which they stated that the ship was in sound condition. The cruise line cataloged over 100 boxes of the ship's blueprints. In August 2004, NCL commenced feasibility studies regarding a new build-out of the vessel; and in May 2006, Tan Sri Lim Kok Thay, chairman of Malaysia-based Star Cruises (the owner of NCL), stated that ''United States'' would be coming back as the fourth ship for NCL after refurbishment. Meanwhile, the Windmill Point restaurant, which had contained some of the original furniture from the ship, closed in 2007. The furniture was donated to the Mariners' Museum and Christopher Newport University, both in Newport News, Virginia.

When NCL America first began operation in Hawaii, it used the ships , , and , rather than ''United States.'' NCL America later withdrew ''Pride of Aloha'' and ''Pride of Hawaii'' from its Hawaiian service. In February 2009, it was reported that ''United States'' would "soon be listed for sale".

Founding of the SS ''United States'' Conservancy and threat of scrapping

The SS ''United States'' Conservancy was then created that year as a group trying to save ''United States'' by raising funds to purchase her. On July 30, 2009, H. F. Lenfest, a Philadelphia media entrepreneur and philanthropist, pledged a matching grant of $300,000 to help the ''United States'' Conservancy purchase the vessel from Star Cruises. A noteworthy supporter, former US president Bill Clinton, has also endorsed rescue efforts to save the ship, having sailed on her himself in 1968.

In March 2010, it was reported that bids for the ship, to be sold for scrap, were being accepted. Norwegian Cruise Lines, in a press release, noted that there were large costs associated with keeping ''United States'' afloat in her current state—around $800,000 a year—and that, as the SS ''United States'' Conservancy was not able to tender an offer for the ship, the company was actively seeking a "suitable buyer". By May 7, 2010, over $50,000 was raised by the SS ''United States'' Conservancy.

In November 2010, the Conservancy announced a plan to develop a "multi-purpose waterfront complex" with hotels, restaurants, and a casino along the Delaware River in South Philadelphia

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