The
Rhine

Rhine (Latin: Rhenus, Romansh: Rein, German: Rhein, French: le
Rhin,[1] Dutch: Rijn) is a European river that begins in the Swiss
canton of
Graubünden

Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps, forms part of
the Swiss-Liechtenstein, Swiss-Austrian, Swiss-German and then the
Franco-German border, then flows through the German
Rhineland

Rhineland and the
Netherlands

Netherlands and eventually empties into the North Sea.
The largest city on the
Rhine

Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population
of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in
Central and Western Europe (after the Danube), at about 1,230 km
(760 mi),[note 2][note 1] with an average discharge of about
2,900 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s).
The
Rhine

Rhine and the
Danube

Danube formed most of the northern inland frontier
of the
Roman Empire

Roman Empire and, since those days, the
Rhine

Rhine has been a vital
and navigable waterway carrying trade and goods deep inland. Its
importance as a waterway in the Holy
Roman Empire

Roman Empire is supported by the
many castles and fortifications built along it. In the modern era, it
has become a symbol of German nationalism.
Contents
1 Name
2 Geography
2.1 Headwaters and sources
2.1.1 Sources
2.1.2
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine and Posterior Rhine
2.2 Alpine Rhine
2.3 Lake Constance
2.3.1 Obersee
2.3.2 Seerhein
2.3.3 Untersee
2.4 High Rhine
2.5 Upper Rhine
2.6 Middle Rhine
2.7 Lower Rhine
2.8 Delta
3 Geologic history
3.1 Alpine orogeny
3.2 Stream capture
3.3 End of the last ice age
3.4 Holocene delta
4 Cultural history
4.1 Antiquity
4.2 Medieval and modern history
5 Lists of features
5.1 Cities on the Rhine
5.2 Countries and borders
5.3 Bridges
5.4 Former distributaries
5.5 Canals
6 See also
7 Notes and references
7.1 Notes
7.2 References
7.3 Bibliography
8 External links
Name[edit]
The variants of the name of the
Rhine

Rhine in modern languages are all
derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, which was adapted in Roman-era
geography (1st century BC) as Greek Ῥῆνος (Rhēnos), Latin
Rhenus.[note 3]
The spelling with Rh- in English
Rhine

Rhine as well as in German Rhein and
French Rhin is due to the influence of Greek orthography, while the
vocalisation -i- is due to the
Proto-Germanic
.PNG/490px-Pre-roman_iron_age_(map).PNG)
Proto-Germanic adoption of the Gaulish
name as *Rīnaz, via
Old Frankish

Old Frankish giving
Old English

Old English Rín,[3] Old High
German Rīn, early
Middle Dutch (c. 1200) Rijn (then also spelled Ryn
or Rin).[4]
The diphthong in modern German Rhein (also adopted in Romansh Rein,
Rain) is a
Central German

Central German development of the early modern period, the
Alemannic name Rī(n) retaining the older vocalism,[note 4] as does
Ripuarian Rhing, while Palatine has diphthongized Rhei, Rhoi. Spanish
is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian,
Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-.
The Gaulish name Rēnos (
Proto-Celtic or pre-Celtic[note 5] *Reinos)
belongs to a class of river names built from the
PIE root *rei- "to
move, flow, run", also found in other names such as the Reno in
Italy.[note 6]
The grammatical gender of the Celtic name (as well as of its Greek and
Latin adaptation) is masculine, and the name remains masculine in
German, Dutch and French. The
Old English

Old English river name was variously
inflected as masculine or feminine; and its Old Icelandic adoption was
inflected as feminine.[5]
Geography[edit]
The length of the
Rhine

Rhine is conventionally measured in
"Rhine-kilometers" (Rheinkilometer), a scale introduced in 1939 which
runs from the Old
Rhine

Rhine Bridge at
Constance

Constance (0 km) to Hoek van
Holland (1036.20 km).
The river is significantly shortened from its natural course due to a
number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th
century.[note 7] The "total length of the Rhine", to the inclusion of
Lake Constance

Lake Constance and the
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine is more difficult to measure
objectively; it was cited as 1,232 kilometres (766 miles) by the Dutch
Rijkswaterstaat in 2010.[note 1]
Its course is conventionally divided as follows:
length
section
avg. discharge
elevation
left tributaries (incomplete)
right tributaries (incomplete)
76 km[remark 1]
The various sources and headwaters forming the Anterior and Posterior
Rhine

Rhine within Grisons, Switzerland
114 m3/s[6]
584 m
Aua Russein, Schmuèr[7]
Rein da Tuma, Rein da Curnera, Rein da Medel, Rein da Sumvitg (Rein da
Vigliuts),
Glogn

Glogn (Valser Rhine), Rabiusa, Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
(right: Ragn da Ferrera, Albula/Alvra (left: Gelgia; right:
Landwasser))[7]
c. 90 km
The
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine running through the Grisonian and St. Gall Rhine
Valley (partly forming parts of the Liechtenstein-Swiss and
Austrian-Swiss border
400 m
Tamina[8]
Plessur, Landquart,[8] Ill
c. 60 km
Lake Constance, including the short channel called
Seerhein

Seerhein at
Constance, connecting Obersee and Untersee
395 m
Alter Rhein

Alter Rhein (Rheintaler Binnenkanal), Goldach[9]
Dornbirner Ach, Bregenzer Ach, Leiblach, Argen, Schussen, Rotach,
Brunnisaach, Lipbach, Seefelder Aach, Radolfzeller Aach[9]
c. 150 km[remark 2]
The
High Rhine

High Rhine from the exit of
Lake Constance

Lake Constance to Basel, forming a
substantial part of the German-Swiss border
1,300 m3/s[10]
246 m
Thur, Töss, Glatt, Aare,[remark 3] Ergolz, Birs[11]
Wutach[11]
362 km[remark 4]
The
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine from
Basel

Basel to Bingen forming the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine Plain and
in its upper course the Franco-German border
79 m
Ill, Moder, Lauter, Nahe
Wiese, Elz, Kinzig, Rench, Acher, Murg, Alb, Pfinz, Neckar, Main
159 km[remark 5]
The
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine between Bingen and either
Bonn

Bonn or
Cologne

Cologne is entirely
within Germany, passing the
Rhine

Rhine Gorge;
45 m
Moselle, Nette, Ahr
Lahn, Wied, Sieg
177 km[remark 6]
The
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine downstream of Bonn, passing the
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine region of
Northrhine-Westphalia
11 m
Erft
Wupper, Düssel, Ruhr, Emscher, Lippe
c. 50 km
The
Nederrijn

Nederrijn or "Nether Rhine" (shortened course of Oude Rijn within
the
Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta

Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta in the Netherlands
2,900 m3/s[remark 7]
0 m
Meuse
Oude IJssel, Berkel
^ length of the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine (including Rein da Medel)
^
Constance

Constance to Basel: Rheinkilometer 0–167.
^ At the confluence of
Aare

Aare and Rhine, the
Aare

Aare at 560 m³/s carries
more water on average than the
Rhine

Rhine at 439 m³/s, so that
hydrographically speaking the
Rhine

Rhine is a right tributary of the Aare.
^
Basel

Basel to Bingen: Rheinkilometer 167–529.
^ Bingen to Cologne: Rheinkilometer 529–688 (159 km); there is
no unambiguous definition of the Middle Rhine, some would prefer to
have it begin further upstream, at the mouth of the Main.
^ Rheinkilometer 688–865.5 (177.5 km) from
Cologne

Cologne to the
Dutch-German border
^ the total discharge of the
Rhine

Rhine is subject to significant
fluctuations, and average values cited vary between sources; the total
discharge taken into account here consists of: Maasmond:
1450 m3/s, Haringvliet: 820 m3/s, Den Oever: 310 m3/s,
Kornwerderzand: 220 m3/s, IJmuiden: 9 m3/s, Scheldt–Rhine
Canal 10 m3/s
Headwaters and sources[edit]
Main article: Sources of the Rhine
Sources[edit]
Lake Toma, seen from the upstream end
The
Rhine

Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from
the confluence of the Rein Anteriur/
Vorderrhein

Vorderrhein and Rein
Posteriur/Hinterrhein next to Reichenau in Tamins. Above this point is
the extensive catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs
almost exclusively to the Swiss canton of Graubünden, ranging from
Saint-Gotthard Massif

Saint-Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino and
Italy

Italy in the south to the
Flüela Pass

Flüela Pass in the east.
Traditionally,
Lake Toma

Lake Toma near the
Oberalp Pass

Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region
is seen as the source of the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine and the
Rhine

Rhine as a whole.
The
Posterior Rhine

Posterior Rhine rises in the
Rheinwald

Rheinwald below the Rheinwaldhorn.
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine and Posterior Rhine[edit]
Main articles:
Vorderrhein

Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein (river)
The confluence of the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine to the lower left and the
Posterior Rhine

Posterior Rhine in the back, forming the
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine to the left next
to Reichenau
The source of the river is generally considered north of Lai da
Tuma/
Tomasee

Tomasee on Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein,[12] although its southern
tributary
Rein da Medel

Rein da Medel is actually longer before its confluence with
the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine near Disentis.
The
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine (Romansh: Rein Anteriur, German: Vorderrhein)
springs from Lai da Tuma/Tomasee, near the
Oberalp Pass

Oberalp Pass and passes the
impressive
Ruinaulta

Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the
alps, the Flims Rockslide.
The
Posterior Rhine

Posterior Rhine (Romansh: Rein Posteriur, German: Hinterrhein)
starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its
tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically
Italian territory. After three main valleys separated by the two
gorges,
Roflaschlucht

Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau in Tamins.
Map of the Alpine Rhine
The
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine arises from numerous source streams in the upper
Surselva

Surselva and flows in an easterly direction. One source is Lai da Tuma
(2,345 m (7,694 ft))[13] with the Rein da Tuma, which is
usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it.
Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in
length, such as the Rein da Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein
da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the canton of Ticino is drained by
the Reno di Medel, which crosses the geomorphologic Alpine main ridge
from the south.[note 8] All streams in the source area are partially,
sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the
local hydro-electric power plants.
The culminating point of the Anterior Rhine's drainage basin is the
Piz Russein

Piz Russein of the Tödi massif of the
Glarus Alps

Glarus Alps at 3,613 metres
(11,854 ft) above sea level. It starts with the creek Aua da
Russein (lit.: "Water of the Russein").[14]
In its lower course the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine flows through a gorge named
Ruinaulta

Ruinaulta (Flims Rockslide). The whole stretch of the Anterior Rhine
to the
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine confluence next to Reichenau in
Tamins

Tamins is
accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda
Sursilvana.[15]
The
Posterior Rhine

Posterior Rhine flows first east-northeast, then north. It flows
through the three valleys named Rheinwald,
Schams

Schams and
Domleschg-Heinzenberg. The valleys are separated by the Rofla Gorge
and
Viamala

Viamala Gorge. Its sources are located in the Adula Alps
(Rheinwaldhorn, Rheinquellhorn, and Güferhorn).
The
Avers Rhine

Avers Rhine joins from the south. One of its headwaters, the Reno
di Lei (stowed in the Lago di Lei), is partially located in Italy.
Near Sils the
Posterior Rhine

Posterior Rhine is joined by the Albula, from the east,
from the
Albula Pass

Albula Pass region. The Albula draws its water mainly from
the
Landwasser

Landwasser with the
Dischmabach

Dischmabach as the largest source stream, but
almost as much from the Gelgia, which comes down from the Julier Pass.
Numerous larger and smaller tributary rivers bear the name of the
Rhine

Rhine or equivalent in various Romansh idioms like Rein or Ragn.
Examples:
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine area: Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein, Rein da Medel, Rein da
Tuma, Rein da Curnera, Rein da Maighels, Rein da Cristallina, Rein da
Nalps, Rein da Plattas, Rein da Sumvitg, Rein da Vigliuts, Valser
Rhine
Posterior Rhine

Posterior Rhine basin: Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein, Reno di Lei,
Madrischer Rhein, Avers Rhine, Jufer Rhein
Albula-
Landwasser

Landwasser area: In the
Dischma

Dischma valley, near Davos, far east of
the Rhine, there's a place called Am Rin ("Upon Rhine"). A tributary
of the
Dischma

Dischma is called Riner Tälli. Nearby, on the other side of
the Sertig, is the Rinerhorn.
Alpine Rhine[edit]
Main article: Alpine Rhine
The
Rhine

Rhine between
Sargans

Sargans (CH, left) and
Balzers

Balzers (Liechtenstein,
right) with the
Gonzen

Gonzen (1,829 m (6,001 ft), left), the
Girrenspitz

Girrenspitz (2,099 m (6,886 ft)) in the back, and the
Maziferchopf (855 m (2,805 ft)) to the right
See also: Rheintal
Next to Reichenau in
Tamins

Tamins the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine and the Posterior Rhine
join and form the Alpine Rhine. The river makes a distinctive turn to
the north near Chur. This section is nearly 86 km long, and
descends from a height of 599 m to 396 m. It flows through a wide
glacial Alpine valley known as the
Rhine

Rhine Valley (German: Rheintal).
Near
Sargans

Sargans a natural dam, only a few metres high, prevents it from
flowing into the open
Seeztal valley and then through
Lake Walen

Lake Walen and
Lake Zurich

Lake Zurich into the Aare. The
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine begins in the westernmost
part of the Swiss canton of Graubünden, and later forms the border
between
Switzerland

Switzerland to the west and
Liechtenstein

Liechtenstein and later
Austria

Austria to
the east.
As an effect of human work, it empties into
Lake Constance

Lake Constance on Austrian
territory and not on the border that follows its old natural river
bed.
The mouth of the
Rhine

Rhine into
Lake Constance

Lake Constance forms an inland delta. The
delta is delimited in the west by the
Alter Rhein

Alter Rhein ("Old Rhine") and in
the east by a modern canalized section. Most of the delta is a nature
reserve and bird sanctuary. It includes the Austrian towns of Gaißau,
Höchst and Fußach. The natural
Rhine

Rhine originally branched into at
least two arms and formed small islands by precipitating sediments. In
the local Alemannic dialect, the singular is pronounced "Isel" and
this is also the local pronunciation of Esel ("Donkey"). Many local
fields have an official name containing this element.
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine delta at Lake Constance
A regulation of the
Rhine

Rhine was called for, with an upper canal near
Diepoldsau

Diepoldsau and a lower canal at Fußach, in order to counteract the
constant flooding and strong sedimentation in the western
Rhine

Rhine Delta.
The
Dornbirner Ach

Dornbirner Ach had to be diverted, too, and it now flows parallel
to the canalized
Rhine

Rhine into the lake. Its water has a darker color
than the Rhine; the latter's lighter suspended load comes from higher
up the mountains. It is expected that the continuous input of sediment
into the lake will silt up the lake. This has already happened to the
former Lake Tuggenersee.
The cut-off Old
Rhine

Rhine at first formed a swamp landscape. Later an
artificial ditch of about two km was dug. It was made navigable to the
Swiss town of Rheineck.
Lake Constance[edit]
Satellite image. In the center and on the right (i.e. to the east) the
larger part of Lake Constance, called the Obersee, is visible, and it
includes, in the lower right, the Delta of the Alpine Rhine. The
northwesterly "finger" (on the top left) is Lake Überlingen,
containing the island of Mainau. Below Lake Überlingen (also in the
west) is the smaller Untersee, containing Reichenau Island. The
Obersee and Untersee are connected by the four kilometers long
Seerhein. On the left the
High Rhine

High Rhine can be seen.
Main article: Lake Constance
Lake Constance

Lake Constance consists of three bodies of water: the Obersee ("upper
lake"), the Untersee ("lower lake"), and a connecting stretch of the
Rhine, called the
Seerhein

Seerhein ("Lake Rhine"). The lake is situated in
Germany,
Switzerland

Switzerland and
Austria

Austria near the Alps. Specifically, its
shorelines lie in the German states of
Bavaria
.svg/240px-Flag_of_Bavaria_(striped).svg.png)
Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg,
the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, and the Swiss cantons of
Thurgau

Thurgau and
St. Gallen. The
Rhine

Rhine flows into it from the south following the
Swiss-Austrian border. It is located at approximately 47°39′N
9°19′E / 47.650°N 9.317°E / 47.650; 9.317.
Obersee[edit]
Main article: Obersee (Lake Constance)
The flow of cold, gray mountain water continues for some distance into
the lake. The cold water flows near the surface and at first doesn't
mix with the warmer, green waters of Upper Lake. But then, at the
so-called Rheinbrech, the
Rhine

Rhine water abruptly falls into the depths
because of the greater density of cold water. The flow reappears on
the surface at the northern (German) shore of the lake, off the island
of Lindau. The water then follows the northern shore until Hagnau am
Bodensee. A small fraction of the flow is diverted off the island of
Mainau

Mainau into Lake Überlingen. Most of the water flows via the
Constance

Constance hopper into the Rheinrinne ("
Rhine

Rhine Gutter") and Seerhein.
Depending on the water level, this flow of the
Rhine

Rhine water is clearly
visible along the entire length of the lake.
The
Rhine

Rhine carries very large amounts of debris into the lake.[note 9]
In the mouth region, it is therefore necessary to permanently remove
gravel by dredging. The large sediment loads are partly due to the
extensive land improvements upstream.
Three countries border the Obersee, namely
Switzerland

Switzerland in the south,
Austria

Austria in the southeast and the German states of
Bavaria
.svg/240px-Flag_of_Bavaria_(striped).svg.png)
Bavaria in the
northeast and
Baden-Württemberg

Baden-Württemberg in the north and northwest.
Seerhein[edit]
Main article: Seerhein
Distance markers along the
Rhine

Rhine indicate distances from this bridge
in Constance
The 555km marker, downstream from the Lorelei
The
Seerhein

Seerhein is only four km long. It connects the Obersee with the
30 cm lower Untersee. Distance markers along the
Rhine

Rhine measure
the distance from the bridge in the old city centre of Constance.
For most of its length, the
Seerhein

Seerhein forms the border between Germany
and Switzerland. The exception is the old city centre of Constance, on
the Swiss side of the river.
The
Seerhein

Seerhein emerged in the last thousands of years, when erosion
caused the lake level to be lowered by about 10 metres. Previously,
the two lakes formed a single lake, as the name still suggests.
Untersee[edit]
Main article: Untersee (Lake Constance)
Like in the Obersee, the flow the
Rhine

Rhine can be traced in the Untersee.
Here, too, the river water is hardly mixed with the lake water. The
northern parts of the Untersee (Lake Zell and Gnadensee) remain
virtually unaffected by the flow. The river traverses the southern,
which, in isolation, is sometimes called Rhinesee ("Lake Rhine").,
The
Radolfzeller Aach

Radolfzeller Aach adds large amounts of water from the Danube
system to the Untersee.
Reichenau Island

Reichenau Island was formed at the same time as the Seerhein, when the
water level was lowered to its current level.
Lake Untersee is part of the border between
Switzerland

Switzerland and Germany,
with
Germany

Germany on the north bank and
Switzerland

Switzerland on the south, except
both sides are Swiss in Stein am Rhein, where the
High Rhine

High Rhine flows out
of the lake.
High Rhine[edit]
Main article: High Rhine
The High Rhine
The
Rhine Falls

Rhine Falls at
Schaffhausen

Schaffhausen (Switzerland)
The
Rhine

Rhine emerges from Lake Constance, flows generally westward, as
the Hochrhein, passes the
Rhine

Rhine Falls, and is joined by its major
tributary, the Aare. The
Aare

Aare more than doubles the Rhine's water
discharge, to an average of nearly 1,000 m3/s
(35,000 cu ft/s), and provides more than a fifth of the
discharge at the Dutch border. The
Aare

Aare also contains the waters from
the 4,274 m (14,022 ft) summit of Finsteraarhorn, the
highest point of the
Rhine

Rhine basin. The
Rhine

Rhine roughly forms the
German-Swiss border

German-Swiss border from
Lake Constance

Lake Constance with the exceptions of the
canton of
Schaffhausen

Schaffhausen and parts of the cantons of Zürich and
Basel-Stadt, until it turns north at the so-called
Rhine knee

Rhine knee at
Basel, leaving Switzerland.
The
High Rhine

High Rhine begins in
Stein am Rhein

Stein am Rhein at the western end of the
Untersee. Unlike the
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine and Upper Rhine, it flows to the
west. It falls from 395 m to 252 m. Some stretches of the
High Rhine

High Rhine between
Stein am Rhein

Stein am Rhein and Eglisau form the border between
Switzerland

Switzerland on the south bank and
Germany

Germany in the north. On other
stretches, both sides are Swiss; in fact most of the Canton of
Schaffhausen

Schaffhausen is on the north bank. Between Eglisau and Basel, the High
Rhine

Rhine consistently forms the border.
The
Rhine Falls

Rhine Falls are situated below Schaffhausen. It has an average
water flow of 373 m³/s (mean summer discharge 700 m³/s)
and is the second largest waterfall in Europe in terms of potential
energy, after
Dettifoss

Dettifoss in Iceland. The
High Rhine

High Rhine is characterized by
numerous dams. On the few remaining natural sections, there are still
several rapids.
Near
Koblenz

Koblenz in the Aargau, the
Aare

Aare joins the Rhine. With an average
discharge of 557 m³/s, the
Aare

Aare is more voluminous than the
Rhine, which has an average discharge of 439 m³/s. Nevertheless,
the
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine is considered the main branch, because it is longer.
Upper Rhine[edit]
Main article: Upper Rhine
Rhein (front) and
Rhine

Rhine canal (back) near Breisach
In the centre of Basel, the first major city in the course of the
stream, is located the "
Rhine

Rhine knee"; this is a major bend, where the
overall direction of the
Rhine

Rhine changes from west to north. Here the
High Rhine

High Rhine ends. Legally, the Central Bridge is the boundary between
High and Upper Rhine. The river now flows north as
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine through
the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine Plain, which is about 300 km long and up to
40 km wide. The most important tributaries in this area are the
Ill below of Strasbourg, the
Neckar

Neckar in
Mannheim

Mannheim and the Main across
from Mainz. In Mainz, the
Rhine

Rhine leaves the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine Valley and
flows through the
Mainz

Mainz Basin.
View of the
Mainz

Mainz Basin downstreams of Mainz, from
Eltville

Eltville and Erbach
to Bingen
The southern half of the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine forms the border between France
(Alsace) and
Germany

Germany (Baden-Württemberg). The northern part forms the
border between the German states of
Rhineland-Palatinate

Rhineland-Palatinate in the west
on the one hand, and
Baden-Württemberg

Baden-Württemberg and
Hesse

Hesse on the other hand,
in the east and north. A curiosity of this border line is that the
parts of the city of
Mainz

Mainz on the right bank of the
Rhine

Rhine were given
to
Hesse

Hesse by the occupying forces in 1945.
The
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine was a significant cultural landscape in Central Europe
already in antiquity and during the Middle Ages. Today, the Upper
Rhine

Rhine area hosts many important manufacturing and service industries,
particularly in the centers Basel,
Strasbourg

Strasbourg and
Mannheim-Ludwigshafen.
Strasbourg

Strasbourg is the seat of the European
Parliament, and so one of the three European capitals is located on
the Upper Rhine.
The
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine region was changed significantly by a Rhine
straightening program in the 19th Century. The rate of flow was
increased and the ground water level fell significantly. Dead branches
were removed by construction workers and the area around the river was
made more habitable for humansflood plains as flooding decreased
sharply. On the French side, the Grand Canal d'
Alsace

Alsace was dug, which
carries a significant part of the river water, and all of the traffic.
In some places, there are large compensation pools, for example, the
huge Bassin de compensation de
Plobsheim

Plobsheim in Alsace.
The
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine has undergone significant human change since the 19th
century. While it was slightly modified during the Roman occupation,
it was not until the emergence of engineers such as Johann Gottfried
Tulla that significant modernization efforts changed the shape of the
river. Earlier work under Frederick the Great surrounded efforts to
ease shipping and construct dams to serve coal transportation.[16]
Tulla is considered to have domesticated the Upper Rhine,
domestication that served goals such as reducing stagnant bogs that
fostered waterborne diseases, making regions more habitable for human
settlement, and reduce high frequency of flooded water. Not long
before Tulla went to work on widening and straightening the river
heavy floods had brought significant loss of life.[17] Four diplomatic
treaties were signed among German state governments and French regions
dealing with the changes proposed along the Rhine, one was "the Treaty
for the Rectification of the
Rhine

Rhine flow from Neuberg to
Dettenheim"(1817), which surrounded states such as Bourbon
France

France and
the Bavarian Palatinate. Loops, oxbows, branches and islands were
removed along the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine so that there would be a present
uniformity to the river.[18] The engineering of the
Rhine

Rhine was not
without protest, farmers and fishermen had grave concerns about
valuable fishing areas and farmland being lost. While some areas lost
ground, other areas saw swamps and bogs be drained and turned into
arable land.[19] Johann Tulla had the goal of shortening and
straightening the Upper Rhine. Early engineering projects the Upper
Rhine

Rhine also had issues, with Tulla's project at one part of the river
creating rapids, after the
Rhine

Rhine cut down from erosion to sheer
rock.[20] Engineering along the
Rhine

Rhine eased flooding and made
transportation along the river less cumbersome. These state projects
were part of the advanced and technical progress efforts going on in
the country alongside the industrial revolution. For the German state,
to make the river more predictable was to ensure development projects
could easily commence.[21]
The section of the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine downstream from
Mainz

Mainz is also known as
the "Island Rhine". Here a number of river islands occur, locally
known as "Rheinauen".
Middle Rhine[edit]
Main article: Middle Rhine
The
Rhine

Rhine is the longest river in Germany. It is here that the Rhine
encounters some more of its main tributaries, such as the Neckar, the
Main and, later, the Moselle, which contributes an average discharge
of more than 300 m3/s (11,000 cu ft/s). Northeastern
France

France drains to the
Rhine

Rhine via the Moselle; smaller rivers drain the
Vosges

Vosges and
Jura Mountains

Jura Mountains uplands. Most of
Luxembourg

Luxembourg and a very small
part of
Belgium
.jpg/440px-Belgium-6015_-_Most_Photographed_Dog_in_Burges_(13902076955).jpg)
Belgium also drain to the
Rhine

Rhine via the Moselle. As it
approaches the Dutch border, the
Rhine

Rhine has an annual mean discharge of
2,290 m3/s (81,000 cu ft/s) and an average width of
400 m (1,300 ft).
Play media
Rhine

Rhine by ship from
Assmannshausen

Assmannshausen to Rüdesheim (Video 2008)
Between
Bingen am Rhein

Bingen am Rhein and Bonn, the
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine flows through the
Rhine

Rhine Gorge, a formation which was created by erosion. The rate of
erosion equaled the uplift in the region, such that the river was left
at about its original level while the surrounding lands raised. The
gorge is quite deep and is the stretch of the river which is known for
its many castles and vineyards. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
(2002) and known as "the Romantic Rhine", with more than
40 castles and fortresses from the
Middle Ages

Middle Ages and many quaint
and lovely country villages.
Until the early 1980s, industry was a major source of water pollution.
Although many plants and factories can be found along the
Rhine

Rhine up
into Switzerland, it is along the
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine that the bulk of them
are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of Cologne,
Düsseldorf

Düsseldorf and Duisburg.
Duisburg

Duisburg is the home of Europe's largest
inland port and functions as a hub to the sea ports of Rotterdam,
Antwerp

Antwerp and Amsterdam. The Ruhr, which joins the
Rhine

Rhine in Duisburg, is
nowadays a clean river, thanks to a combination of stricter
environmental controls, a transition from heavy industry to light
industry and cleanup measures, such as the reforestation of Slag and
brownfields. The
Ruhr

Ruhr currently provides the region with drinking
water. It contributes 70 m3/s (2,500 cu ft/s) to the
Rhine. Other rivers in the
Ruhr

Ruhr Area, above all, the Emscher, still
carry a considerable degree of pollution.
Between
Strasbourg

Strasbourg and Kehl
Bridge at Karlsruhe
Aerial photo between
Eltville

Eltville and Bingen
Marksburg

Marksburg near Koblenz, built in 1231
The
Rhine

Rhine in Cologne, Germany
Rhine

Rhine at Düsseldorf
View of the
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine Valley and Burg Katz, in the background
Lorelei
The
Mainz

Mainz Basin ends in Bingen am Rhein; the
Rhine

Rhine continues as
"Middle Rhine" into the
Rhine Gorge

Rhine Gorge in the Rhenish Slate Mountains. In
this sections the river falls from 77.4 m above sea level to
50.4 m. On the left, is located the mountain ranges of Hunsrück
and Eifel, on the right
Taunus

Taunus and Westerwald. According to
geologists, the characteristic narrow valley form was created by
erosion by the river while the surrounding landscape was lifted (see
water gap).
Major tributaries in this section are the
Lahn

Lahn and the Moselle. They
join the
Rhine

Rhine near Koblenz, for the right and left respectively.
Almost the entire length of the
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine runs in the German state
of Rhineland-Palatinate.
The dominant economic sectors in the
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine area are viniculture
and tourism. The
Rhine Gorge

Rhine Gorge between
Rüdesheim am Rhein

Rüdesheim am Rhein and Koblenz
is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Near Sankt Goarshausen, the
Rhine

Rhine flows around the famous rock Lorelei. With its outstanding
architectural monuments, the slopes full of vines, settlements crowded
on the narrow river banks and scores of castles lined up along the top
of the steep slopes, the
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine Valley can be considered the
epitome of the
Rhine

Rhine romanticism.
Lower Rhine[edit]
Main article: Lower Rhine
Low water in Düsseldorf
The
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine at Emmerich
In Bonn, where the
Sieg

Sieg flows into the Rhine, the
Rhine

Rhine enters the
North German Plain

North German Plain and turns into the Lower Rhine. The Lower Rhine
falls from 50 m to 12 m. The main tributaries on this
stretch are the
Ruhr

Ruhr and the Lippe. Like the Upper Rhine, the Lower
Rhine

Rhine used to meander until engineering created a solid river bed.
Because the levees are some distance from the river, at high tide the
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine has more room for widening than the Upper Rhine.
The
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine flows through North Rhine-Westphalia. Its banks are
usually heavily populated and industrialized, in particular the
agglomerations Cologne,
Düsseldorf

Düsseldorf and
Ruhr

Ruhr area. Here the Rhine
flows through the largest conurbation in Germany, the Rhine-Ruhr
region. One of the most important cities in this region is Duisburg
with the largest river port in Europe (Duisport). The region
downstream of
Duisburg

Duisburg is more agricultural. In Wesel, 30 km
downstream of Duisburg, is located the western end of the second
east-west shipping route, the Wesel-Datteln Canal, which runs parallel
to the Lippe. Between Emmerich and
Cleves

Cleves the Emmerich
Rhine

Rhine Bridge,
the longest suspension bridge in Germany, crosses the 400-metre-wide
(1,300 ft) river. Near Krefeld, the river crosses the Uerdingen
line, the line which separates the areas where
Low German

Low German and High
German are spoken.
Delta[edit]
Main articles:
Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta

Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and Nether Rhine
The central and northern parts of the Rhine-
Meuse

Meuse delta
Changing the
Meuse

Meuse estuary in 1904: light blue old course, dark blue
today's course
Partition of
Rhine

Rhine and
Meuse

Meuse water among the various branches of their
delta
The
Nederrijn

Nederrijn at Arnhem
The Dutch name for
Rhine

Rhine is "Rijn". The
Rhine

Rhine turns west and enters
the Netherlands, where, together with the rivers
Meuse

Meuse and Scheldt, it
forms the extensive Rhine-Meuse-
Scheldt

Scheldt delta, with 25,347 km2
(9,787 sq mi) the largest river delta in Europe.[22]
Crossing the border into the
Netherlands

Netherlands at Spijk, close to Nijmegen
and Arnhem, the
Rhine

Rhine is at its widest, although the river then splits
into three main distributaries: the Waal,
Nederrijn

Nederrijn ("Nether Rhine")
and IJssel.
From here, the situation becomes more complicated, as the Dutch name
Rijn no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Two thirds of
the water flow volume of the
Rhine

Rhine flows farther west, through the
Waal and then, via the
Merwede

Merwede and Nieuwe
Merwede

Merwede (De Biesbosch),
merging with the Meuse, through the
Hollands Diep

Hollands Diep and Haringvliet
estuaries, into the North Sea. The Beneden
Merwede

Merwede branches off, near
Hardinxveld-Giessendam

Hardinxveld-Giessendam and continues as the Noord, to join the Lek,
near the village of Kinderdijk, to form the Nieuwe Maas; then flows
past
Rotterdam

Rotterdam and continues via
Het Scheur

Het Scheur and the Nieuwe Waterweg,
to the North Sea. The
Oude Maas

Oude Maas branches off, near Dordrecht, farther
down rejoining the
Nieuwe Maas

Nieuwe Maas to form Het Scheur.
The other third of the water flows through the
Pannerdens Kanaal

Pannerdens Kanaal and
redistributes in the
IJssel

IJssel and Nederrijn. The
IJssel

IJssel branch carries
one ninth of the water flow of the
Rhine

Rhine north into the
IJsselmeer

IJsselmeer (a
former bay), while the
Nederrijn

Nederrijn carries approximately two ninths of
the flow west along a route parallel to the Waal. However, at Wijk bij
Duurstede, the
Nederrijn

Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the Lek. It
flows farther west, to rejoin the Noord into the
Nieuwe Maas

Nieuwe Maas and to
the North Sea.
The name Rijn, from here on, is used only for smaller streams farther
to the north, which together formed the main river
Rhine

Rhine in Roman
times. Though they retained the name, these streams no longer carry
water from the Rhine, but are used for draining the surrounding land
and polders. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the
Rhine

Rhine is called
Kromme Rijn

Kromme Rijn ("Bent Rhine") past Utrecht, first Leidse
Rijn ("
Rhine

Rhine of Leiden") and then, Oude Rijn ("Old Rhine"). The latter
flows west into a sluice at Katwijk, where its waters can be
discharged into the North Sea. This branch once formed the line along
which the
Limes Germanicus

Limes Germanicus were built. During periods of lower sea
levels within the various ice ages, the
Rhine

Rhine took a left turn,
creating the Channel River, the course of which now lies below the
English Channel.
The Rhine-
Meuse

Meuse Delta, the most important natural region of the
Netherlands

Netherlands begins near Millingen aan de Rijn, close to the
Dutch-German border with the division of the
Rhine

Rhine into Waal and
Nederrijn. Since the
Rhine

Rhine contributes most of the water, the shorter
term
Rhine

Rhine Delta is commonly used. However, this name is also used for
the river delta where the
Rhine

Rhine flows into Lake Constance, so it is
clearer to call the larger one Rhine-
Meuse

Meuse delta, or even
Rhine–Meuse–
Scheldt

Scheldt delta, as the
Scheldt

Scheldt ends in the same delta.
The shape of the
Rhine

Rhine delta is determined by two bifurcations: first,
at Millingen aan de Rijn, the
Rhine

Rhine splits into Waal and Pannerdens
Kanaal, which changes its name to
Nederrijn

Nederrijn at Angeren, and second
near Arnhem, the
IJssel

IJssel branches off from the Nederrijn. This creates
three main flows, two of which change names rather often. The largest
and southern main branch begins as Waal and continues as Boven Merwede
("Upper Merwede"), Beneden
Merwede

Merwede ("Lower Merwede"), Noord ("the
North"),
Nieuwe Maas

Nieuwe Maas ("New Meuse"),
Het Scheur

Het Scheur ("the Rip") and Nieuwe
Waterweg ("New Waterway"). The middle flow begins as Nederrijn, then
changes into Lek, then joins the Noord, thereby forming Nieuwe Maas.
The northern flow keeps the name
IJssel

IJssel until it flows into Lake
IJsselmeer. Three more flows carry significant amounts of water: the
Nieuwe
Merwede

Merwede ("New Merwede"), which branches off from the southern
branch where it changes from Boven to Beneden Merwede; the Oude Maas
("Old Meuse"), which branches off from the southern branch where it
changes from Beneden
Merwede

Merwede into Noord, and Dordtse Kil, which
branches off from Oude Maas.
Before the St. Elizabeth's flood (1421), the
Meuse

Meuse flowed just south
of today's line Merwede-
Oude Maas

Oude Maas to the
North Sea

North Sea and formed an
archipelago-like estuary with Waal and Lek. This system of numerous
bays, estuary-like extended rivers, many islands and constant changes
of the coastline, is hard to imagine today. From 1421 to 1904, the
Meuse

Meuse and Waal merged further upstream at
Gorinchem

Gorinchem to form Merwede.
For flood protection reasons, the
Meuse

Meuse was separated from the Waal
through a lock and diverted into a new outlet called "Bergse Maas",
then Amer and then flows into the former bay Hollands Diep.
The northwestern part of the estuary (around Hook of Holland), is
still called
Maasmond

Maasmond ("
Meuse

Meuse Mouth"), ignoring the fact that it now
carries only water from the Rhine. This might explain the confusing
naming of the various branches.
The hydrography of the current delta is characterized by the delta's
main arms, disconnected arms (Hollandse IJssel, Linge, Vecht, etc.)
and smaller rivers and streams. Many rivers have been closed
("dammed") and now serve as drainage channels for the numerous
polders. The construction of
Delta Works

Delta Works changed the Delta in the
second half of the 20th Century fundamentally. Currently
Rhine

Rhine water
runs into the sea, or into former marine bays now separated from the
sea, in five places, namely at the mouths of the Nieuwe Merwede,
Nieuwe Waterway (Nieuwe Maas), Dordtse Kil, Spui and IJssel.
The Rhine-
Meuse

Meuse Delta is a tidal delta, shaped not only by the
sedimentation of the rivers, but also by tidal currents. This meant
that high tide formed a serious risk because strong tidal currents
could tear huge areas of land into the sea. Before the construction of
the Delta Works, tidal influence was palpable up to Nijmegen, and even
today, after the regulatory action of the Delta Works, the tide acts
far inland. At the Waal, for example, the most landward tidal
influence can be detected between
Brakel

Brakel and Zaltbommel.
Geologic history[edit]
Alpine orogeny[edit]
Schematic cross section of the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine Graben.
The
Rhine

Rhine flows from the
Alps

Alps to the
North Sea

North Sea Basin; the geography
and geology of its present-day watershed has been developing, since
the
Alpine orogeny

Alpine orogeny began.
In southern Europe, the stage was set in the
Triassic

Triassic Period of the
Mesozoic

Mesozoic Era, with the opening of the Tethys Ocean, between the
Eurasian and African tectonic plates, between about 240 MBP and
220 MBP (million years before present). The present Mediterranean
Sea descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea. At about
180 MBP, in the
Jurassic

Jurassic Period, the two plates reversed
direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be
subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in
the Alpine Orogeny of the
Oligocene

Oligocene and
Miocene

Miocene Periods. Several
microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed
laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean
geography: Iberia pushed up the Pyrenees; Italy, the Alps, and
Anatolia, moving west, the mountains of
Greece

Greece and the islands. The
compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing
raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active
volcanoes.
In northern Europe, the
North Sea

North Sea Basin had formed during the Triassic
and
Jurassic

Jurassic periods and continued to be a sediment receiving basin
since. In between the zone of
Alpine orogeny

Alpine orogeny and
North Sea

North Sea Basin
subsidence, remained highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny
(Variscan), such as the Ardennes,
Eifel

Eifel and Vosges.
From the
Eocene
.JPG/440px-Crassostrea_gigantissima_(Finch,_1824).JPG)
Eocene onwards, the ongoing
Alpine orogeny

Alpine orogeny caused a N–S
rift system to develop in this zone. The main elements of this rift
are the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine Graben, in southwest
Germany

Germany and eastern France
and the
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine Embayment, in northwest
Germany

Germany and the
southeastern Netherlands. By the time of the Miocene, a river system
had developed in the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine Graben, that continued northward and
is considered the first
Rhine

Rhine river. At that time, it did not yet
carry discharge from the Alps; instead, the watersheds of the Rhone
and
Danube

Danube drained the northern flanks of the Alps.
Stream capture[edit]
The watershed of the
Rhine

Rhine reaches into the
Alps

Alps today, but it did not
start out that way.[23] In the
Miocene

Miocene period, the watershed of the
Rhine

Rhine reached south, only to the
Eifel

Eifel and
Westerwald

Westerwald hills, about
450 km (280 mi) north of the Alps. The
Rhine

Rhine then had the
Sieg

Sieg as a tributary, but not yet the
Moselle

Moselle (river). The northern
Alps

Alps were then drained by the Danube.
Through stream capture, the
Rhine

Rhine extended its watershed southward. By
the
Pliocene

Pliocene period, the
Rhine

Rhine had captured streams down to the Vosges
Mountains, including the Mosel, the Main and the Neckar. The northern
Alps

Alps were then drained by the Rhone. By the early
Pleistocene

Pleistocene period,
the
Rhine

Rhine had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the
Rhône, including the Aare. Since that time, the
Rhine

Rhine has added the
watershed above
Lake Constance

Lake Constance (Vorderrhein, Hinterrhein, Alpenrhein;
captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main, beyond
Schweinfurt

Schweinfurt and the
Vosges

Vosges Mountains, captured from the Meuse, to its
watershed.
Around 2.5 million years ago (ending 11,600 years ago) was the
geological period of the Ice Ages. Since approximately
600,000 years ago, six major Ice Ages have occurred, in which sea
level dropped 120 m (390 ft) and much of the continental
margins became exposed. In the Early Pleistocene, the
Rhine

Rhine followed a
course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the
so-called Anglian glaciation (~450,000 yr BP, marine oxygen
isotope stage 12), the northern part of the present
North Sea

North Sea was
blocked by the ice and a large lake developed, that overflowed through
the English Channel. This caused the Rhine's course to be diverted
through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the
river mouth was located offshore of Brest,
France

France and rivers, like the
River Thames

River Thames and the Seine, became tributaries to the Rhine. During
interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level,
the
Rhine

Rhine built deltas, in what is now the Netherlands.
The last glacial ran from ~74,000 (BP = Before Present), until the end
of the
Pleistocene

Pleistocene (~11,600 BP). In northwest Europe, it saw two
very cold phases, peaking around 70,000 BP and around
29,000–24,000 BP. The last phase slightly predates the global
last ice age maximum (Last Glacial Maximum). During this time, the
lower
Rhine

Rhine flowed roughly west through the
Netherlands

Netherlands and extended
to the southwest, through the English Channel and finally, to the
Atlantic Ocean. The English Channel, the Irish Channel and most of the
North Sea

North Sea were dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately
120 m (390 ft) lower than today.
Most of the Rhine's current course was not under the ice during the
last Ice Age; although, its source must still have been a glacier. A
tundra, with Ice Age flora and fauna, stretched across middle Europe,
from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the Last
Glacial Maximum, ca. 22,000–14,000 yr BP, when ice-sheets
covered Scandinavia, the Baltics, Scotland and the Alps, but left the
space between as open tundra.
Loess

Loess (wind-blown topsoil dust) arose
from the south and
North Sea

North Sea plain settling on the slopes of the Alps,
Urals and the
Rhine

Rhine Valley, rendering the valleys facing the
prevailing winds especially fertile.
End of the last ice age[edit]
As northwest Europe slowly began to warm up from 22,000 years ago
onward, frozen subsoil and expanded alpine glaciers began to thaw and
fall-winter snow covers melted in spring. Much of the discharge was
routed to the
Rhine

Rhine and its downstream extension.[24] Rapid warming
and changes of vegetation, to open forest, began about 13,000 BP.
By 9000 BP, Europe was fully forested. With globally shrinking
ice-cover, ocean water levels rose and the English Channel and North
Sea re-inundated. Meltwater, adding to the ocean and land subsidence,
drowned the former coasts of Europe transgressionally.
About 11000 years ago, the
Rhine

Rhine estuary was in the Strait of Dover.
There remained some dry land in the southern North Sea, known as
Doggerland, connecting mainland Europe to Britain. About 9000 years
ago, that last divide was overtopped / dissected. Man was already
resident in the area when these events happened.
Since 7500 years ago the situation of tides, currents and land-forms
has resembled the present. Rates of sea-level rise dropped such that
natural sedimentation by the
Rhine

Rhine and coastal processes widely
compensate for transgression by the sea. In the southern North Sea,
due to ongoing tectonic subsidence, the coastline and sea bed are
sinking at the rate of about 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in) per
century (1 metre or 39 inches in last 3000 years).
About 7000–5000 BP, a general warming encouraged migration of all
former ice-locked areas, including up the
Danube

Danube and down the
Rhine

Rhine by
peoples to the east. A sudden massive expansion of the Black Sea as
the
Mediterranean Sea

Mediterranean Sea burst into it through the
Bosporus

Bosporus may have
occurred about 7500 BP.
Holocene delta[edit]
At the begin of the Holocene (~11,700 years ago), the
Rhine

Rhine occupied
its Late-Glacial valley. As a meandering river, it reworked its
ice-age floodplain. As sea-level rise continued in the Netherlands,
the formation of the Holocene Rhine-
Meuse

Meuse delta began
(~8,000 years ago). Coeval absolute sea-level rise and tectonic
subsidence have strongly influenced delta evolution. Other factors of
importance to the shape of the delta are the local tectonic activities
of the Peel Boundary Fault, the substrate and geomorphology, as
inherited from the Last Glacial and the coastal-marine dynamics, such
as barrier and tidal inlet formations.[25]
Since ~3000 yr BP (= years Before Present), human impact is seen in
the delta. As a result of increasing land clearance (Bronze Age
agriculture), in the upland areas (central Germany), the sediment load
of the
Rhine

Rhine has strongly increased[26] and delta growth has speeded
up.[27] This has caused increased flooding and sedimentation, ending
peat formation in the delta. In the geologically recent past the main
process distributing sediment across the delta has been the shifting
of river channels to new locations on the floodplain (termed
avulsion). Over the past 6000 years, approximately
80 avulsions have occurred.[23] Direct human impact in the delta
began with the mining of peat for salt and fuel from Roman times
onward. This was followed by embankment of the major distributaries
and damming of minor distributaries, which took place in the
11–13th century AD. Thereafter, canals were dug, bends were
straightened and groynes were built to prevent the river's channels
from migrating or silting up.
At present, the branches Waal and Nederrijn-Lek discharge to the North
Sea through the former
Meuse

Meuse estuary, near Rotterdam. The river IJssel
branch flows to the north and enters the
IJsselmeer

IJsselmeer (formerly the
Zuider Zee), initially a brackish lagoon but a freshwater lake since
1932. The discharge of the
Rhine

Rhine is divided into three branches: the
Waal (6/9 of total discharge), the
Nederrijn

Nederrijn – Lek (2/9 of total
discharge) and the
IJssel

IJssel (1/9 of total discharge). This discharge
distribution has been maintained since 1709 by river engineering works
including the digging of the Pannerdens canal and the installation, in
the 20th century, of a series of weirs on the Nederrijn.
Cultural history[edit]
Main article: Rhineland
Further information: Rhenus Pater
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Loreley
Antiquity[edit]
Further information: Limes Germanicus
The
Rhine

Rhine was not known to
Herodotus

Herodotus and first enters the historical
period in the 1st century BC in Roman-era geography. At that time, it
formed the boundary between
Gaul

Gaul and Germania.
The
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine had been part of the areal of the late Hallstatt
culture since the 6th century BC, and by the 1st century BC, the areal
of the
La Tène culture
.jpg/440px-Couvercle_bronze_gaulois_-_La_Fosse_Cotheret_(Val_d'Oise).jpg)
La Tène culture covered almost its entire length, forming a
contact zone with the Jastorf culture, i.e. the locus of early
Celtic-Germanic cultural contact.
In Roman geography, the
Rhine

Rhine formed the boundary between Gallia and
Germania

Germania by definition; e.g. Maurus Servius Honoratus, Commentary on
the Aeneid of Vergil (8.727) (Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a
Gallia dividit "(The
Rhine

Rhine is a) river of Gaul, which divides the
Germanic people from Gaul."
In Roman geography, the
Rhine

Rhine and
Hercynia Silva

Hercynia Silva were considered the
boundary of the civilized world; as it was a wilderness, the Romans
were eager to explore it. This view is typified by Res Gestae Divi
Augusti, a long public inscription of Augustus, in which he boasts of
his exploits; including, sending an expeditionary fleet north of the
Rheinmouth, to
Old Saxony

Old Saxony and Jutland, which he claimed no Roman had
ever done before.
Augustus

Augustus ordered his general Drusus to establish 50 military camps
along the Rhine, starting the
Germanic Wars

Germanic Wars in 12 BC. At this time,
the plain of the
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine was the territory of the Ubii. The first
urban settlement, on the grounds of what is today the centre of
Cologne, along the Rhine, was Oppidum Ubiorum, which was founded in
38 BC by the Ubii.
Cologne

Cologne became acknowledged, as a city by the
Romans in AD 50, by the name of Colonia Claudia Ara
Agrippinensium.
From the death of
Augustus

Augustus in AD 14 until after AD 70, Rome accepted
as her Germanic frontier the water-boundary of the
Rhine

Rhine and upper
Danube. Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of
Frankfurt, opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum (Mainz),
the southernmost slopes of the
Black Forest

Black Forest and a few scattered
bridge-heads. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine
is deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary until the empire fell.
The southern part was different. The upper
Rhine

Rhine and upper
Danube

Danube are
easily crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long,
enclosing an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory between the
modern
Baden

Baden and Württemberg. The Germanic populations of these lands
seem in Roman times to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the
modern
Alsace-Lorraine

Alsace-Lorraine had drifted across the river eastwards.
The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhine. The
actual number of legions present at any base or in all, depended on
whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about AD 14 and
180, the assignment of legions was as follows: for the army of
Germania

Germania Inferior, two legions at Vetera (Xanten), I Germanica and XX
Valeria (Pannonian troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of
the Ubii"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to
Cologne, V Alaudae, a Celtic legion recruited from Gallia Narbonensis
and XXI, possibly a Galatian legion from the other side of the empire.
For the army of
Germania

Germania Superior: one legion, II Augusta, at
Argentoratum

Argentoratum (Strasbourg); and one, XIII Gemina, at Vindonissa
(Windisch). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta, before his
promotion to imperator. In addition, were a double legion, XIV and
XVI, at Moguntiacum (Mainz).
The two original military districts of
Germania

Germania Inferior and Germania
Superior, came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later
respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For
example, the upper
Germanic peoples

Germanic peoples combined into the Alemanni. For a
time, the
Rhine

Rhine ceased to be a border, when the
Franks

Franks crossed the
river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic Gaul, as far as Paris.
Germanic tribes

Germanic tribes crossed the
Rhine

Rhine in the Migration period, by the 5th
century establishing the kingdoms of
Francia
.svg/500px-Frankish_Empire_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Francia on the Lower Rhine,
Burgundy on the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine and
Alemannia

Alemannia on the High Rhine. This
"Germanic Heroic Age" is reflected in medieval legend, such as the
Nibelungenlied

Nibelungenlied which tells of the hero Siegfried killing a dragon on
the
Drachenfels (Siebengebirge)

Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) ("dragons rock"), near
Bonn

Bonn at the
Rhine

Rhine and of the Burgundians and their court at Worms, at the Rhine
and Kriemhild's golden treasure, which was thrown into the
Rhine

Rhine by
Hagen.
Medieval and modern history[edit]
Further information:
Rhine

Rhine romanticism
French forces under Louis XIV cross the
Rhine

Rhine into the
Netherlands

Netherlands in
1672
By the 6th century, the
Rhine

Rhine was within the borders of Francia. In
the 9th, it formed part of the border between Middle and Western
Francia, but in the 10th century, it was fully within the Holy Roman
Empire, flowing through Swabia,
Franconia

Franconia and Lower Lorraine. The
mouths of the Rhine, in the county of Holland, fell to the Burgundian
Netherlands

Netherlands in the 15th century; Holland remained contentious
territory throughout the
European wars of religion

European wars of religion and the eventual
collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, when the length of the
Rhine

Rhine fell
to the
First French Empire
.svg/250px-Flag_of_France_(1794-1815).svg.png)
First French Empire and its client states. The
Alsace

Alsace on the
left banks of the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine was sold to Burgundy by Archduke
Sigismund of
Austria

Austria in 1469 and eventually fell to
France

France in the
Thirty Years' War. The numerous historic castles in
Rhineland-Palatinate

Rhineland-Palatinate attest to the importance of the river as a
commercial route.
Since the Peace of Westphalia, the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine formed a contentious
border between
France

France and Germany. Establishing "natural borders" on
the
Rhine

Rhine was a long-term goal of French foreign policy, since the
Middle Ages, though the language border was – and is – far more to
the west. French leaders, such as Louis XIV and Napoleon Bonaparte,
tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the
Rhine. The
Confederation of the Rhine

Confederation of the Rhine was established by Napoleon, as
a French client state, in 1806 and lasted until 1814, during which
time it served as a significant source of resources and military
manpower for the First French Empire. In 1840, the
Rhine

Rhine crisis,
prompted by French prime minister Adolphe Thiers's desire to reinstate
the
Rhine

Rhine as a natural border, led to a diplomatic crisis and a wave
of nationalism in Germany.
Allied soldiers of the
Royal Newfoundland Regiment

Royal Newfoundland Regiment crossing the Rhine
into
Germany

Germany after the end of WWI, December 1918
The
Rhine

Rhine became an important symbol in
German nationalism

German nationalism during the
formation of the German state in the 19th century (see Rhine
romanticism).
The song Die Wacht am Rhein, which became almost a national anthem.
Das Rheingold

Das Rheingold – inspired by the Nibelungenlied, the
Rhine

Rhine is one of
the settings for the first opera of Richard Wagner's Der Ring des
Nibelungen. The action of the epic opens and ends underneath the
Rhine, where three Rheinmaidens swim and protect a hoard of gold.
The Loreley/
Lorelei

Lorelei is a rock on the eastern bank of the Rhine, that
is associated with several legendary tales, poems and songs. The river
spot has a reputation for being a challenge for inexperienced
navigators.
At the end of World War I, the
Rhineland

Rhineland was subject to the Treaty of
Versailles. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies,
until 1935 and after that, it would be a demilitarised zone, with the
German army forbidden to enter. The
Treaty of Versailles

Treaty of Versailles and this
particular provision, in general, caused much resentment in Germany
and is often cited as helping Adolf Hitler's rise to power. The allies
left the Rhineland, in 1930 and the German army re-occupied it in
1936, which was enormously popular in Germany. Although the allies
could probably have prevented the re-occupation, Britain and France
were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of appeasement
to Hitler.
Soldiers of the
US 89th Infantry Division

US 89th Infantry Division cross the
Rhine

Rhine in assault
boats under German fire as part of
Operation Plunder

Operation Plunder on 24 March 1945
In World War II, it was recognised that the
Rhine

Rhine would present a
formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany, by the Western
Allies. The
Rhine

Rhine bridge at Arnhem, immortalized in the book, A Bridge
Too Far and the film, was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem,
during the failed
Operation Market Garden

Operation Market Garden of September 1944. The
bridges at Nijmegen, over the Waal distributary of the Rhine, were
also an objective of Operation Market Garden. In a separate operation,
the Ludendorff Bridge, crossing the
Rhine

Rhine at Remagen, became famous,
when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact – much to their own
surprise – after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became
the subject of a film, The Bridge at Remagen. Seven Days to the River
Rhine

Rhine was a
Warsaw Pact

Warsaw Pact war plan for an invasion of Western Europe
during the Cold War.
Until 1932 the generally accepted length of the
Rhine

Rhine was 1,230
kilometres (764 miles). In 1932 the German encyclopedia Knaurs Lexikon
stated the length as 1,320 kilometres (820 miles), presumably a
typographical error. After this number was placed into the
authoritative Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, it became generally accepted
and found its way into numerous textbooks and official publications.
The error was discovered in 2010, and the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat
confirms the length at 1,232 kilometres (766 miles).[note 1]
Lists of features[edit]
Cities on the Rhine[edit]
Large cities that are situated on the Rhine:
Switzerland:
Basel
France:
Strasbourg
Germany:
Karlsruhe
Mannheim
Ludwigshafen
Wiesbaden
Mainz
Koblenz
Bonn
Cologne
Leverkusen
Neuss
Düsseldorf
Krefeld

Krefeld (Uerdingen)
Duisburg
Netherlands:
Arnhem

Arnhem (Nederrijn)
Nijmegen

Nijmegen (Waal)
Utrecht (Kromme Rijn)
Rotterdam

Rotterdam (Nieuwe Maas)
Smaller cities that are situated on the Rhine:
Switzerland:
Chur
Kreuzlingen
Schaffhausen
Liechtenstein:
Vaduz
Germany:
Konstanz
Breisach
Speyer
Worms
Bingen am Rhein
Rüdesheim am Rhein
Neuwied
Andernach
Bad Honnef
Königswinter
Niederkassel
Wesseling
Dormagen
Zons
Monheim am Rhein
Wesel
Xanten
Emmerich am Rhein
Netherlands:
Zutphen

Zutphen (IJssel)
Deventer

Deventer (IJssel)
Zwolle
.jpg/268px-City_Centre,_8011_Zwolle,_Netherlands_-_panoramio_(57).jpg)
Zwolle (IJssel)
Kampen (IJssel)
Leiden

Leiden (Oude Rijn)
Dordrecht

Dordrecht (Merwede)
Countries and borders[edit]
During its course from the
Alps

Alps to the North Sea, the
Rhine

Rhine passes
through four countries and constitutes six different country borders.
On the various parts:
the
Anterior Rhine

Anterior Rhine lies entirely within Switzerland, while at least
one tributary to Posterior Rhine, Reno di Lei originates in Italy, but
is not considered a part of the
Rhine

Rhine proper.
the
Alpine Rhine

Alpine Rhine flows within
Switzerland

Switzerland till Sargans, from which it
becomes the border between
Switzerland

Switzerland (to the west) and Liechtenstein
(to the east) until Oberriet, and the river never flows within
Liechtenstein. It then becomes the border between
Switzerland

Switzerland (to the
west) and
Austria

Austria (to the east) until
Diepoldsau

Diepoldsau where the modern and
straight course enters Switzerland, while the original course Alter
Rhein makes a bend to the east and continues as the Swiss-Austrian
border until the confluence at Widnau. From here the river continues
as the border until Lustenau, where the modern and straight course
enters
Austria

Austria (the only part of the river that flows within Austria),
while the original course makes a bend to the west and continues as
the border, until both courses enters Lake Constance.
the first half of Seerhein, between the upper and lower body of Lake
Constance, flows within
Germany

Germany (and the city of Konstanz), while the
second is the German (to the north) – Swiss (to the south) frontier.
the first parts of the High Rhine, from
Lake Constance

Lake Constance to Altholz, the
river alternates flowing within
Switzerland

Switzerland and being the German-Swiss
frontier (three times each). From Altholz the river is the German –
Swiss border until Basel, where it enters
Switzerland

Switzerland for the last
time.
the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine is the border between
France

France (to the west) and
Switzerland

Switzerland (to the east) for a short distance, from
Basel

Basel to
Hunningue. Here it becomes the Franco (to the west) – German (to the
east) frontier until Au am Rhein. Hence, the main course of the Rhine
never flows within France, although some river canals do. From Au am
Rhein the river flows within Germany.
the
Middle Rhine

Middle Rhine flows entirely within Germany.
the
Lower Rhine

Lower Rhine flows within
Germany

Germany until Emmerich am Rhein, where it
becomes the border between The
Netherlands

Netherlands (to the north) and Germany
(to the south). At
Millingen aan de Rijn
.JPG/500px-Sint-Anthoniuskerk,_Millingen_aan_de_Rijn_(01).JPG)
Millingen aan de Rijn the river enters the
Netherlands.
all parts of the Delta Rhein flows within the
Netherlands

Netherlands until they
enters the North Sea,
IJsselmeer

IJsselmeer (IJssel) or
Haringvliet

Haringvliet (Waal) at the
Dutch coast.
Bridges[edit]
Main article: List of bridges over the Rhine
Former distributaries[edit]
Order: panning north to south through the Western Netherlands:
Vecht (Utrecht)

Vecht (Utrecht) (minor channel in Roman times, flowing into former
Zuider Zee

Zuider Zee lagoon)
Kromme Rijn

Kromme Rijn –
Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)

Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland) (main channel in
Roman times, dammed in the 12th century)
Hollandse
IJssel

IJssel (formed after Roman times, dammed in the
13th century AD)
Linge

Linge (big channel in Roman times, dammed in the 14th century AD)
De Biesbosch-area (initiated by AD 1421–1424 storm surges and river
floods, by-passed since the digging of Nieuwe
Merwede

Merwede canal in
AD 1904)
Canals[edit]
Order: upstream to downstream:
Rhine–Main–
Danube

Danube Canal – southeastern Germany
Grand Canal d'
Alsace

Alsace – eastern France
Rhine-Herne Canal

Rhine-Herne Canal – northwest Germany, connection to the
Dortmund-Ems Canal

Dortmund-Ems Canal and the Mittellandkanal
Maas-Waal Canal

Maas-Waal Canal – eastcentral Netherlands
Amsterdam-Rhine Canal

Amsterdam-Rhine Canal – central Netherlands
Scheldt-Rhine Canal – southwest Netherlands
Canal of Drusus
See also[edit]
Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine
EV15 The
Rhine

Rhine Cycle Route
Köln-Düsseldorfer
Piz Lunghin

Piz Lunghin (triple watershed: Po–Rhine–Danube)
Witenwasserenstock

Witenwasserenstock (triple watershed: Rhone–Rhine–Po)
List of old waterbodies of the Rhine
Notes and references[edit]
Notes[edit]
^ a b c d The
Rhine

Rhine only has an official length scale (Rheinkilometer)
downstream of Constance. Its full length is subject to the definition
of the Alpine Rhine. In 2010, there were media reports to the effect
that the length of the
Rhine

Rhine had long been underreported in
20th-century encyclopedias, and upon request by journalists, Dutch
Rijkswaterstaat cited a length of 1,232 km.Schrader, Christopher;
Uhlmann, Berit (28 March 2010). "Der Rhein ist kürzer als gedacht –
Jahrhundert-Irrtum". sueddeutsche.de (in German). Retrieved 27 March
2010. ."
Rhine

Rhine River 90km shorter than everyone thinks". The Local
– Germany's news in English. 27 March 2010. Retrieved 9 April
2010. "'We checked it out and came to 1,232 kilometres,' said
Ankie Pannekoek, spokeswoman for the Dutch government hydrology
office."
^ The
Rhine

Rhine is cited as the "twelfth-longest river of
Europe"[according to whom?] if the Russian rivers Volga, Ural,
Pechora, Kama, Northern Dvina–Vychegda, Oka and Belaya are counted
which are based on the modern conventional boundary between Europe and
Asia are within European Russia or form part of the boundary to Asia.
Also longer than the
Rhine

Rhine are the Eastern European rivers Dnieper,
Don and Dniester flowing into the Black Sea.
^ The
Rhine

Rhine was not known in the Hellenistic period. It is mentioned
by Cicero, In Pisonem 33.81.
Strabo

Strabo (1.4.3) mentions the countries "at
the mouth of the Rhine" αἱ τοῦ Ῥήνου ἐκβολαί;
"states that the countries "beyond the
Rhine

Rhine and as far as Scythia"
καὶ τὰ πέραν τοῦ Ῥήνου τὰ μέχρι
Σκυθῶ should be considered unknown, as Pytheas' account of
remote nations is not to be trusted.
^ The loss of final -n in pausa is a recent development in Alemannic,
the form Rīn is mostly preserved in Lucerne dialects. Schweizerisches
Idiotikon s.v. "Rī(n)" (6,994).
^ Krahe (1964) claims the hydronym as "Old European", i.e. belonging
to the oldest Indo-European layer of names predating the 6th century
BC (Hallstatt D) Celtic expansion.
^ . In Albanian/Illyrian "Template:Rrhedh" also means to "move, flow,
run". Pokorny's (1959) "3. er- : or- : r- 'to move, set in
motion'" (pp. 326–32), laryngealist *h1reiH-, with an -n- suffix;
Celtic reflexes:
Old Irish renn "rapid", rīan "sea", Middle Irish
rian "river, way". The root gives the Germanic verb rinnan (' <
*ri-nw-an) whence English run (from a causative *rannjanan, Old
English eornan); Gothic rinnan "run, flow,"
Old English

Old English rinnan, Old
Norse rinna "to run,", rinno "brook"; c.f. Sanskrit rinati "causes to
flow"; Root cognates without the -n- suffix include Middle Low German
ride "brook",
Old English

Old English riþ "stream", Dutch ril "running stream",
Latin rivus "stream", Old Church Slavonic reka "river".; see also
"Rhine". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. November 2001.
Retrieved 10 February 2009.
^ most notably the straighening of the
Upper Rhine

Upper Rhine planned by Johann
Gottfried Tulla, completed during 1817–1876.
^ The geomorphological ridge line does not necessarily coincide with
the watershed, since it refers to the average altitude in a
surrounding circle
^ sediment management. The
Rhine

Rhine transports each year up to 3 million
m³ of solids into the lake
References[edit]
^ a b "Le Rhin" (official site) (in French). Paris, France: L'Institut
National de l'Information Geographique et Forestrière IGN. Retrieved
2016-03-06.
^ Frijters and Leentvaar (2003)
^ Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898), p. 799. Sió
eá ðe man hǽt Rín
Orosius

Orosius (ed. J. Bosworth 1859) 1.1
^ Rijn, Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek
^ Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898), p. 799: Rín;
m.; f. The
Rhine

Rhine [...] O. H. Ger. Rín; m.: Icel. Rín; f.
^ sum of
Vorderrhein

Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein discharges according to
Hydrologischer Atlas der Schweiz, 2002, Tab. 5.4 "Natürliche
Abflüsse 1961–1980".
^ a b "Maps of
Switzerland

Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online
map). Vorderrhein. Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio. National Map 1:200 000 (in
German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo.
Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014.
Retrieved 2016-01-04 – via http://map.geo.admin.ch.
^ a b "Maps of
Switzerland

Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online
map). Alpenrhein. Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio. National Map 1:2 Mio (in
German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo.
Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014.
Retrieved 2016-01-04 – via http://map.geo.admin.ch.
^ a b "Maps of
Switzerland

Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online
map). Lake Constance. Gewässernetz 1:200 000, Flussordnung. National
Map 1:2 Mio (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of
Topography swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the
Environment FOEN. 2014. Retrieved 2016-01-05 – via
http://map.geo.admin.ch.
^ Average over the period 1961–1990: 1,297 m3/s (M. Spreafico
und R. Weingartner, Hydrologie der Schweiz: Ausgewählte Aspekte und
Resultate, Berichte des BWG, 2005, citing Schädler and Weingartner,
2002); regular yearly peak at 2,500 m3/s, exceptional peaks above
4,000 m3/s. Simon Scherrer, Armin Petrascheck, Hanspeter Hode,
Extreme Hochwasser des Rheins bei
Basel

Basel – Herleitung von Szenarien
(2006).
^ a b "Maps of
Switzerland

Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online
map). High Rhine. Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio. National Map 1:2 Mio (in
German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo.
Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014.
Retrieved 2016-01-05 – via http://map.geo.admin.ch.
^ Atlas der Schweiz
Switzerland

Switzerland maps by Swiss Federal Office of
Topography Archived 9 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "1232 - Oberalppass" (Map). Lai da Tuma (2015 ed.). 1:25 000.
National Map 1:25'000. Wabern, Switzerland: Federal Office of
Topography – swisstopo. 2013. ISBN 978-3-302-01232-2. Retrieved
2018-03-01 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
^ "1193 - Tödi" (Map).
Piz Russein

Piz Russein (2016 ed.). 1:25 000. National Map
1:25'000. Wabern, Switzerland: Federal Office of Topography –
swisstopo. 2013. ISBN 978-3-302-01193-6. Retrieved 2018-02-28 –
via map.geo.admin.ch.
^ Swiss
Rhine

Rhine long-distance trail Senda Sursilvana in Graubünden
^ Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: an eco-biography, 1815–2000. Seattle:
University of Washington Press.48–49
^ Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: an eco-biography, 1815–2000. Seattle:
University of Washington Press. 2002. 52
^ Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: an eco-biography, 1815–2000. Seattle:
University of Washington Press. 2002. 53
^ Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: an eco-biography, 1815–2000. Seattle:
University of Washington Press. 2002. 54
^ Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: an eco-biography, 1815–2000. Seattle:
University of Washington Press. 2002: 54
^ Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: an eco-biography, 1815–2000. Seattle:
University of Washington Press. 2002: 56
^ Tockner, K; Uehlinger, U; Robinson, C T; Siber, R; Tonolla, D;
Peter, F D (2009). "European Rivers". In Lekens, Gene E. Encyclopedia
of Inland Waters. 3. Elsevier. pp. 366–377.
ISBN 978-0-12-370626-3.
^ a b Berendsen and Stouthamer (2001)
^ Ménot et al. (2006)
^ Cohen et al. (2002)
^ Hoffmann et al. (2007)
^ Gouw and Erkens (2007)
Bibliography[edit]
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Meuse

Meuse Delta, The Netherlands" (PDF).
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Netherlands Journal of Geosciences – Geologie en
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Sediment

Sediment Storage and Hillslope Erosion
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Rhine

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"
Rhine

Rhine River History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia
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Rhine

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External links[edit]
Rhine

Rhine with maps and details of navigation through the French section;
places, ports and moorings, by the author of Inland Waterways of
France, Imray
Navigation details for 80 French rivers and canals (French waterways
website section)
v
t
e
Tributaries of the Rhine
Left
(western)
Vorderrhein
Aua da Russein
Schmuèr
Alpine Rhine
Vorderrhein
Tamina
Alter Rhein
Rheintaler Binnenkanal
Lake Constance
Goldach
High Rhine
Thur
Töss
Glatt
Aare
Sissle
Ergolz
Birs
Birsig
Upper Rhine
Ill
Moder
Sauer
Lauter
Spiegelbach
Queich
Speyerbach
Rehbach
Isenach
Eckbach
Eisbach
Pfrimm
Selz
Middle Rhine
Welzbach
Nahe
Moselle
Nette
Brohlbach
Ahr
Lower Rhine
Erft
Right
(eastern)
Vorderrhein
Rein da Tuma
Rein da Curnera
Rein da Medel
Rein da Sumvitg
Glogn
Rabiusa
Hinterrhein
Ragn da Ferrera
Albula/Alvra
Alpine Rhine
Hinterrhein
Plessur
Landquart
Mülbach
Ill
Frutz
Lake Constance
Dornbirner Ach
Bregenzer Ach
Leiblach
Argen
Schussen
Rotach
Brunnisaach
Lipbach
Seefelder Aach
Stockacher Aach
Radolfzeller Aach
High Rhine
Biber
Wutach
Alb
Murg
Wehra
Upper Rhine
Wiese
Elz
Kinzig
Rench
Acher
Murg
Alb
Pfinz
Saalbach
Kraichbach
Leimbach
Neckar
Weschnitz
Modau
Main
Middle Rhine
Wisper
Lahn
Wied
Lower Rhine
Sieg
Wupper
Düssel
Ruhr
Emscher
Lippe
IJssel
Oude IJssel/Issel
Berkel
Schipbeek
v
t
e
Rhine–Meuse–
Scheldt

Scheldt delta
Rhine
Rijn
Rhin
Current distributaries
Waal
Nederrijn
IJssel
Lek
Merwede
Boven Merwede
Nieuwe Merwede
Beneden Merwede
Oude Maas
Dordtsche Kil
Noord
Nieuwe Maas
Het Scheur
Nieuwe Waterweg
Former distributaries
Kromme Rijn
Leidse Rijn
Oude Rijn
Hollandse IJssel
Vecht
Waaltje
Brielse Maas
Spui
Current estuaries
Nieuwe Waterweg
IJsselmeer
Former estuaries
Hollands Diep
Haringvliet
Volkerak
Krammer
Grevelingen
Keeten-Mastgat
Oosterschelde
Associated canals
Bijlands Kanaal
Pannerdens Kanaal
Amsterdam–
Rhine

Rhine Canal
Vaartse Rijn
Nieuwe Merwede
Nieuwe Waterweg
Scheldt–
Rhine

Rhine Canal
Maas–Waal Canal
Meuse
Maas
Current distributaries
Bergse Maas
Amer
Former distributaries
Oude Maasje
Afgedamde Maas
Merwede
Boven Merwede
Beneden Merwede
Oude Maas
Dordtsche Kil
Noord
Nieuwe Maas
Het Scheur
Nieuwe Waterweg
Current estuaries
Former estuaries
Hollands Diep
Haringvliet
Volkerak
Krammer
Grevelingen
Keeten-Mastgat
Oosterschelde
Associated canals
Heusden Canal
Bergse Maas
Maas–Waal Canal
Scheldt
Schelde
Escaut
Current distributaries
Western Scheldt
Former distributaries
Oosterschelde
Eendracht
Current estuaries
Western Scheldt
Former estuaries
Oosterschelde
Krammer
Grevelingen
Associated canals
Scheldt–
Rhine

Rhine Canal
Canal through Walcheren
Other rivers
(directly draining
into the delta)
Linge
Mark
Donge
Rotte
Oude IJssel
Islands and
Peninsulas
Rozenburg
IJsselmonde
Het Eiland van Dordt
Voorne and Putten
Hoeksche Waard
Tiengemeten
Goeree-Overflakkee
Schouwen-Duiveland
Tholen
Sint Philipsland
Walcheren
Noord-Beveland
Zuid-Beveland
Towns
Rotterdam
Antwerp
Dordrecht
Bergen-op-Zoom
Schiedam
Vlissingen
Vlaardingen
Middelburg
Spijkenisse
Other topics
Delta Works
Verdronken Land van Reimerswaal
Verdronken Land van Saeftinghe
St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)
St. Felix's Flood
All Saints' Flood (1570)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 3145602320301361474
LCCN: sh85113657
GND: 4049739-2
BNF: cb11949068g (data)
HDS: