Raoul Island (''Sunday Island'') is the largest and northernmost of the main

Kermadec Islands The Kermadec Islands ( mi, Rangitāhua) are a subtropical island arc in the South Pacific Ocean northeast of New Zealand's North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The islands are part of New Zealand. They are in total ar ...

, south south-west of 'Ata Island of

Tonga Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...

and north north-east of New Zealand's

North Island The North Island, also officially named Te Ika-a-Māui, is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but much less populous South Island by the Cook Strait. The island's area is , making it the world's 14th-largest ...

. It has been the source of vigorous

volcanic A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates a ...

activity during the past several thousand years that was dominated by

dacitic Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyol ...

explosive eruptions. The area of the anvil-shaped island, including fringing islets and rocks mainly in the northeast, but also a few smaller ones in the southeast, is . The highest elevation is Moumoukai Peak, at an elevation of . Although Raoul is the only island in the Kermadec group large enough to support settlement, it lacks a safe harbour, and landings from small boats can be made only in calm weather. The island consists of two mountainous areas, one with summits of and , and the other with a summit of , the two separated by a depression which is the

caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcano eruption. When large volumes of magma are erupted over a short time, structural support for the rock above the magma chamber is ...

of the Raoul volcano.

History

Evidence from archaeological sites on the northern coast of Raoul Island indicate that Polynesians settled there in the 14th century. A 1980 publication also suggested a lower layer of deposits dated to the 10th century, but this was rejected by the paper's author in 1991 in favour of the later date. Finds at the sites included stone implements of the Polynesian type,

obsidian Obsidian () is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extrusive rock, extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock. Obsidian is produced from felsic lava, rich in the lighter elements s ...

flakes, shells and charcoal. Obsidian of the same type has been found at early

Māori Māori or Maori can refer to: Relating to the Māori people * Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group * Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand * Māori culture * Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...

sites at Shag River / Waihemo and

Tai Rua The Waianakarua River is a river in North Otago, New Zealand, flowing into the Pacific Ocean. It is crossed by Highway 1 at Waianakarua, south of Herbert, by an old historic bridge. The river has a catchment size of approximately 260 km2. ...

, Otago on the

South Island The South Island, also officially named , is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand in surface area, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman ...

of New Zealand. There are also similarities to the Raoul settlement at archaic sites at

Houhora Houhora is a locality and harbour on the east side of the Aupouri Peninsula of Northland, New Zealand. It is north of Kaitaia. Waihopo, Te Raupo, Pukenui, Raio and Houhora Heads are associated localities on the southern shores of the harbour. ...

and Papatowai. Higham and Johnson (1997) concluded that Raoul was settled from New Zealand but that the Kermadecs were a stepping stone in an early and rapid

Polynesian migration Polynesian is the adjectival form of Polynesia. It may refer to: * Polynesians, an ethnic group * Polynesian culture, the culture of the indigenous peoples of Polynesia * Polynesian mythology, the oral traditions of the people of Polynesia * Poly ...

from Polynesia to New Zealand and back although the occupation of the islands was relatively brief. The island was uninhabited when first sighted by Western sailors and was named after Joseph Raoul, quartermaster of the ''Recherche'', when it was sighted on 16 March 1793. Captain

William Raven William Raven (1756–1814) was an English master mariner, naval officer and merchant. He commanded the whaler and sealing vessel ''Britannia'' and the naval store ship in Australian and New Zealand waters from 1792 until 1799. While in command ...

of the whaleship ''Britannia'' sighted the island on 6 March 1796 and called it Sunday Island, a name which was subsequently in common usage. Captain

Henry Mangles Denham Vice Admiral Sir Henry Mangles Denham (28 August 1800 – 3 July 1887) was a Royal Navy officer who went on to be Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Station. Early career Denham entered the navy in 1809. He served on from 1810 to 1814, initially u ...

of HMS ''Herald'' charted the island in 1854. The last regular occupants, Tom Bell and his wife Frederica, spent thirty-six years on the island before the New Zealand government evacuated them in 1914. A landing party sent to investigate the island found out how hasty the evacuation of the Bells was – a 1914 calendar was still pinned to the kitchen wall and the family's furniture, cutlery, and child's toys had remained in place. The family arrived with six children and five more were born there. From 27 May to 16 June 1917, the German raider ''

Wolf The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly un ...

'', under the command of Korvettenkapitän

Karl August Nerger Karl August Nerger (25 February 1875 – 12 January 1947) was a naval officer of the Imperial German Navy in World War I, who achieved fame and recognition during the war for his command of the auxiliary cruiser '' SMS Wolf''. Nerger was born ...

, anchored in the protected bay to undertake engine overhaul and maintenance. During this period ''Wolf'' captured the New Zealand steamship ''Wairuna'' (3,950 tons) and the American sailing bark ''Winslow'' (570 tons), commandeering all cargo and coal from both ships.

Weather station

The New Zealand government has permanently manned Raoul Island Station since 1937. It includes a government meteorological and radio station and hostel for

Department of Conservation An environmental ministry is a national or subnational government agency politically responsible for the environment and/or natural resources. Various other names are commonly used to identify such agencies, such as Ministry of the Environment ...

(DOC) officers and volunteers. The station stands on the northern terraces of the island, about in elevation above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff. When the New Zealand government established a weather and radio station on the island in 1939 it made Raoul the official name, probably to avoid confusion with a number of Sunday islands in Australia. Raoul Island Station represents the northernmost outpost of New Zealand.

2006 eruption - Mark Kearney

On 17 March 2006 at 8:21a.m.

NZDT Time in New Zealand is divided by law into two standard time zones. The main islands use New Zealand Standard Time (NZST), 12 hours in advance of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) / military M (Mike), while the outlying Chatham Islands use Ch ...

, a 40-second long volcanic eruption occurred at the Green Lake. At the time, Mark Kearney, a DOC worker, was at the crater taking water temperature measurements. A area around Green Lake was affected with ash, mud and boulders. Two DOC workers were forced to turn back after going to the crater to search for Kearney. Following the eruption, DOC decided to evacuate the remaining five staff members. A Mil Mi-8 helicopter and Piper PA-31 Navajo aircraft took off from

Taupō Taupō (), sometimes written Taupo, is a town on the north-eastern shore of Lake Taupō, New Zealand's largest lake, in the central North Island. It is the largest urban area of the Taupō District, and the second-largest urban area in the Wa ...

at 11a.m. that morning. They arrived at the island in the late afternoon and undertook a 45-minute search for Kearney but no sign was seen. The evacuated staff members were brought back to Auckland that evening. A Royal New Zealand Air Force P-3 Orion made an overflight on 21 March to provide further information on how safe it is to approach Green Lake. The

volcanologist A volcanologist, or volcano scientist, is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions, col ...

s aboard decided the area was still unsafe, and that the crater lake had risen by about compared to measurements taken on 17 March. There was no cloud or ash plume. A group of police, the five evacuated workers, three other DOC staff and scientific staff left

Tauranga Tauranga () is a coastal city in the Bay of Plenty region and the fifth most populous city of New Zealand, with an urban population of , or roughly 3% of the national population. It was settled by Māori late in the 13th century, colonised by ...

on 18 March for the three-day boat trip to Raoul aboard the RV ''Braveheart'' to recover Kearney's body. They were able to undertake a limited search, but decided that it was extremely unlikely that Kearney survived given the amount of devastation in the area around Green Lake. The ''Braveheart'' began the journey back to the mainland on 25 March, with three of the DOC workers staying on the island to continue research. The three were joined by the other four evacuated workers at the start of May 2006. Two of the three will return to the mainland after the handover. Five hours after the eruption, the Aura satellite passed over and found an estimated of

sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic gas responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic activ ...

had been released. This confirmed that there were

magma Magma () is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural sa ...

tic gases in the eruption, and the presence of degassing magma within the volcano. By the end of April, the activity in the area had decreased significantly and the "Alert Level" was lowered to 1. HMNZS ''Te Mana'' left for Raoul on 24 August 2006 on a resupply mission. Also on board were Kearney's sister, Merryn McDermott; three representatives of the

Ngāti Kurī Ngāti Kurī is a Māori iwi from Northland, New Zealand. The iwi is one of the five Muriwhenua iwi of the far north of the North Island. Ngāti Kurī trace their whakapapa (ancestry) back to Pōhurihanga, the captain of the waka (canoe) Kura ...

iwi Iwi () are the largest social units in New Zealand Māori society. In Māori roughly means "people" or "nation", and is often translated as "tribe", or "a confederation of tribes". The word is both singular and plural in the Māori language, ...

; and Chris Carter, the Minister of Conservation. During a service held on 28 August, the Ngāti Kurī representatives performed a tapu lifting ceremony. A plaque was erected to honour Kearney. ''Te Mana'' also allowed some volcanic monitoring to be undertaken using its

SH-2G Super Seasprite The Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite is an American ship-based helicopter with anti-submarine, anti-surface threat capability, including over-the-horizon targeting. This aircraft extends and increases shipboard sensor and weapon capabilities against ...

helicopter. During a dawn flight, sample bottles were filled with crater lake water. A report by the New Zealand Department of Labour into the death was released on 14 October 2006. It cleared the Department of Conservation and the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Ltd of any negligence related to the death of Kearney. The report stated that the eruption was unpredictable and there was no indication of imminent seismic activity. Located on an active margin between two tectonic plates, the

also experience frequent earthquakes, the most recently significant of which occurred at 19:28:31 UTC on 4 March 2021. The epicentre occurred south of Raoul and measured 8.1 on the

moment magnitude scale The moment magnitude scale (MMS; denoted explicitly with or Mw, and generally implied with use of a single M for magnitude) is a measure of an earthquake's magnitude ("size" or strength) based on its seismic moment. It was defined in a 1979 pape ...

, and as such is classified as a 'major' earthquake by the

United States Geological Survey The United States Geological Survey (USGS), formerly simply known as the Geological Survey, is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its natural resources, ...

. Also of note on 31 January 2007 at 4:15:55 NZST a Magnitude 6.5 (Strong) earthquake shook the island. The epicenter was approximately S of Raoul and below the seabed. On 9 December 2007 at 8:28pm NZST a magnitude 7.6 earthquake shook the area, centered approximately north of Raoul Island at a depth of . On 30 September 2008 at 3:19:31 NZST a magnitude 7.0 earthquake centered S of Raoul occurred, with an approximate depth of . More recently on 22 October 2011 at 05:57:17 NZST a Magnitude 7.4 earthquake originating at 28.941S 176.045W at a depth of 39 km occurred according to the United States Geological Survey.

July 2011 earthquake

7 July 2011 – 7:03am. A 7.6 Magnitude earthquake occurred at a depth of 24 km, 211 km east of Raoul Island. 7 July 2011 – 8:51am Pacific Tsunami Warning Center scientist Barry Hirshorn told Newstalk ZB the quake generated a 1.9 metre tsunami at Raoul Island.

October 2011 earthquake

22 October 2011 – 5:57pm. A 7.4 magnitude earthquake occurred at a depth of , east of Raoul Island. The Ministry of Civil Defence had issued the advisory while it assessed the severity of the threat to New Zealand. The Ministry was warning people in coastal areas to stay off beaches and out of the water. People were advised to avoid sightseeing and remain on alert in case the earthquake has generated a tsunami, however by mid-morning warnings had lifted.

2012 - Mihai Muncus-Nagy

Department of Conservation volunteer Mihai Muncus-Nagy, a 33-year-old biologist from

Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...

, went missing on Raoul Island on 2 January 2012. He went to Raoul at the end of October 2011. His vehicle and gear were found close to where he was carrying out water temperature readings on the morning of 2 January 2012. The remaining staff and volunteers searched the shore, but did not find any further signs of him. A helicopter was sent to Raoul by the

Rescue Coordination Centre New Zealand Search and rescue (SAR) is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger. The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, typically determined by the type of terrain the search ...

(RCCNZ) from Taupō to carry out an aerial search. A DOC boat was also used in the search. Muncus-Nagy was presumed drowned. Auckland District Court found the Department of Conservation culpable in his death for failing to ensure his safety.

March 2021 earthquake

4 March 2021 – 08:28 local time. An 8.1 magnitude earthquake occurred at a depth of , east of Raoul Island. Owing to the

COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identif ...

, the island was uninhabited at the time. The earthquake led to a tsunami warning for much of New Zealand, and evacuation of some coastal regions of the North Island

Geography

Two

Holocene The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togeth ...

s are found at Raoul. The older caldera, which cuts the center of Raoul Island, is about long and wide respectively. Denham caldera, formed during a major dacitic explosive eruption about 2200 years ago, truncated the western side of the island and is long and wide respectively. Its long axis is parallel to the

tectonic Tectonics (; ) are the processes that control the structure and properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time. These include the processes of mountain building, the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents ...

fabric of the Havre Trough that lies west of the volcanic arc. Historical eruptions at Raoul during the 19th and 20th centuries have sometimes occurred simultaneously from both calderas, and have consisted of small-to-moderate

phreatic ''Phreatic'' is a term used in hydrology to refer to aquifers, in speleology to refer to cave passages, and in volcanology to refer to a type of volcanic eruption. Hydrology The term phreatic (the word originates from the Greek , meaning "well" ...

eruptions, some of which formed ephemeral islands in Denham caldera. A high unnamed submarine cone, one of several located along a fissure on the lower NNE flank of Raoul volcano, has also erupted during historical time, and satellitic vents at Raoul are concentrated along two parallel NNE-trending lineaments. The Denham caldera was named for the nearby Denham Bay, itself named by

Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...

Captain

in HMS ''Herald'', who came to complete a (chart) survey of the island on 2 July 1854. His son Fleetwood James Denham (16yrs) died from a tropical fever, and was buried near the beach at the head of Denham Bay, where a number of the grass-grown graves of former settlers were. The brass plaque heading this grave has been preserved. Three small lakes, Blue Lake (, about 40% overgrown), Green Lake () and Tui Lake (, drinking water quality) are located in the northern

of Raoul Island. The plains surrounding the lakes are called Pumice Flats.

Climate

Raoul Island has a

humid subtropical climate A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and cool to mild winters. These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents (except Antarctica), generally between latitudes 25° and 40° ...

close to the border of

tropical climate Tropical climate is the first of the five major climate groups in the Köppen climate classification identified with the letter A. Tropical climates are defined by a monthly average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher in the cool ...

(''Cfa''). On February 12, 2022, the minimum temperature in the Raoul Island was 25.6 ºC, this is the highest minimum temperature ever recorded in New Zealand.

Flora and fauna

The scientific categorisation of the flora and fauna of the island began in 1854 when , captained by

, arrived to complete the charting of the island. He arrived on the 2nd and was occupied till 24 July, during which time he frequently had to move the ship on account of the rough weather experienced. William Grant Milne and

John MacGillivray John MacGillivray (18 December 1821 – 6 June 1867) was a Scottish naturalist, active in Australia between 1842 and 1867. MacGillivray was born in Aberdeen, the son of ornithologist William MacGillivray. He took part in three of the Royal ...

, naturalists on board the ''Herald'', made a small collection of plants on Raoul. This was forwarded by Captain Denham to Sir W. Hooker, and was described by Sir Joseph Hooker in the ''Journal of the Linnean Society'' for 1857. A scientific expedition was undertaken by a group of naturalists to the

in 1908. The expedition established its base at Denham Bay. During that expedition one of the naturalists, W. L. Wallace, discovered numerous new insect species including the beetle Saprosites raoulensis. Raoul is part of the Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests ecoregion and is largely covered with closed-canopy forest, predominantly of the evergreen Kermadec pōhutukawa (''

Metrosideros kermadecensis ''Metrosideros kermadecensis'', with common names ''Kermadec pōhutukawa'' and New Zealand Christmas bush is an evergreen tree of the myrtle family which is endemic to the volcanic Kermadec Islands about 900 km north-east of New Zealand. ...

'') and the Kermadec nikau palm (''

Rhopalostylis baueri ''Rhopalostylis baueri'' is a species of palm native to Norfolk Island ( Australia) and to the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand). Norfolk Island is the type locality. The common names on Norfolk Island are 'Norfolk Island palm' or 'niau'. In New Ze ...

'', formerly described as ''Rhopalostylis cheesemanii''). It is just far enough south that the occasional fertile coconut from Polynesia that washes up on shore and takes root will not survive in the longterm due to a lack of warmth. The island has no native land mammals and was formerly home to vast colonies of

seabird Seabirds (also known as marine birds) are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same enviro ...

s who nested in the forests. The islands may once have had a species of

megapode The megapodes, also known as incubator birds or mound-builders, are stocky, medium-large, chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet in the family Megapodiidae. Their name literally means "large foot" and is a reference to the heavy legs ...

(based on early settler records) and a subspecies of kereru. Currently native landbirds on the island include the Kermadec red-crowned parakeet (''Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cyanurus''), the Australasian harrier,

pukeko The Australasian swamphen (''Porphyrio melanotus'') is a species of swamphen (''Porphyrio'') occurring in eastern Indonesia (the Moluccas, Aru and Kai Islands), Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand. In New Zealand, it is known as the pu ...

, tui and several introduced species. The island forms part of the Kermadec Islands Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because it is an important site for nesting

s. Polynesian visitors introduced the

Polynesian rat The Polynesian rat, Pacific rat or little rat (''Rattus exulans''), known to the Māori as ''kiore'', is the third most widespread species of rat in the world behind the brown rat and black rat. The Polynesian rat originated in Southeast Asia, ...

in the 14th century and

Norway rat The brown rat (''Rattus norvegicus''), also known as the common rat, street rat, sewer rat, wharf rat, Hanover rat, Norway rat, Norwegian rat and Parisian rat, is a widespread species of common rat. One of the largest muroids, it is a brown o ...

cat The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...

s and

goat The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...

s were introduced by European and American visitors in the 19th and 20th centuries. The rats and cats greatly reduced the seabird colonies, which mostly withdrew to offshore islets, and exterminated the red-crowned parakeet, the last confirmed record of resident parakeets for over a century being made in 1836. Although the goats did not eliminate the tree canopy as they did on other islands, they greatly reduced the

understorey In forestry and ecology, understory (American English), or understorey (Commonwealth English), also known as underbrush or undergrowth, includes plant life growing beneath the forest canopy without penetrating it to any great extent, but abo ...

vegetation and were removed in 1986. The Department of Conservation eradicated rats and cats between 2002 and 2006, following which red-crowned parakeets soon returned naturally, presumably from the Herald Islets, away. The parakeets had been absent from the island for 150 years and their natural return was a notable event in parrot conservation. There are numerous invasive plant species on the island and a large scale weeding programme involving teams of DOC workers and volunteers has been under way for a number of years in an attempt to eradicate them.

Myrtle Rust ''Austropuccinia psidii'', commonly known as myrtle rust, guava rust, or ʻōhiʻa rust; is a rust (a type of plant pathogen) native to South America that affects plants in the family Myrtaceae. It is a member of the fungal complex called the ...

has been found on the island in 2017. The island is part of the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve, New Zealand's largest

marine reserve A marine reserve is a type of marine protected area (MPA). An MPA is a section of the ocean where a government has placed limits on human activity. A marine reserve is a marine protected area in which removing or destroying natural or cultural ...

, which was created in 1990.

Satellite islands and rocks

The two largest satellite islands are North Island and South Island of Meyer Islands. * Islands and rocks in the northeast of Raoul Island ** Fishing Rock ** Egeria Rock ** Meyer Islands *** North Island *** South Island ** Napier ** Nugent Island (northernmost island of New Zealand) ** Herald Islets *** Dayrell Island *** Chanter Islands **** Chanter (North) Island **** South Island **** West Island * Islands and rocks in the southwest of Raoul Island ** Milne Islands ** Dougall Rocks

References

External links

A visit to Raoul in 2002 by Dr. Floor Anthoni
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20121122140853/http://doc.govt.nz/conservation/marine-and-coastal/marine-protected-areas/marine-reserves-a-z/kermadec/ Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve (New Zealand Department of Conservation)]
Raoul Island volcano webcam and seismic information LINZ
– highly detailed map {{Authority control Stratovolcanoes of New Zealand Active volcanoes Islands of the Kermadec Islands VEI-6 volcanoes Calderas of New Zealand Submarine calderas Island restoration Uninhabited islands of New Zealand Important Bird Areas of the Kermadec Islands Volcanic islands of New Zealand Volcanoes of the New Zealand outlying islands Holocene calderas