Qʼumarkaj ( Kʼicheʼ: ) (sometimes rendered as Gumarkaaj, Gumarcaj, Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj) is an archaeological site in the southwest of the

El Quiché EL, El or el may refer to: Religion * El (deity), a Semitic word for "God" People * EL (rapper) (born 1983), stage name of Elorm Adablah, a Ghanaian rapper and sound engineer * El DeBarge, music artist * El Franco Lee (1949–2016), American po ...

department of

Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by Hon ...

.Kelly 1996, p.200. Qʼumarkaj is also known as Utatlán, the

Nahuatl Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have small ...

translation of the city's name. The name comes from Kʼicheʼ ''Qʼumarkah'' "Place of old reeds". Qʼumarkaj was one of the most powerful

Maya Maya may refer to: Civilizations * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (Ethiopia), a popul ...

cities when the

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries **Spanish cuisine Other places * Spanish, Ontario, Can ...

arrived in the region in the early 16th century. It was the capital of the Kʼicheʼ Maya in the Late Postclassic Period. At the time of the

Spanish Conquest The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its predece ...

, Qʼumarkaj was a relatively new capital, with the capital of the Kʼicheʼ kingdom having originally been situated at Jakawitz (identified with the archaeological site Chitinamit) and then at Pismachiʼ. Qʼumarkaj was founded during the reign of king Qʼuqʼumatz ("Feathered Serpent" in Kʼicheʼ) in the early 15th century, immediately to the north of Pismachiʼ.Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.623. In 1470 the city was seriously weakened by a rebellion among the nobility that resulted in the loss of key allies of the Kʼicheʼ. Archaeologically and ethnohistorically, Qʼumarkaj is the best known of the Late Postclassic

highland Highlands or uplands are areas of high elevation such as a mountainous region, elevated mountainous plateau or high hills. Generally speaking, upland (or uplands) refers to ranges of hills, typically from up to while highland (or highlands) is ...

Maya capitals. The earliest reference to the site in

occurs in

Hernán Cortés Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; ; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish ''conquistador'' who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of w ...

' letters from

Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...

. Although the site has been investigated, little reconstruction work has taken place. The surviving

architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings ...

, which includes a

Mesoamerican ballcourt A Mesoamerican ballcourt ( nah, tlachtli) is a large masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2,700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame. More than 1,300 ballcourts have been i ...

, temples and palaces, has been badly damaged by the looting of stone to build the nearby town of

Santa Cruz del Quiché Santa Cruz del Quiché is a city, with a population of 78,279 (2018 census), in Guatemala. It serves as the capital of the El Quiché department and the municipal seat of Santa Cruz del Quiché municipality. The city is located at , at an elevati ...

. The major structures of Qʼumarkaj were laid out around a plaza. They included the temple of Tohil, a

jaguar The jaguar (''Panthera onca'') is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus ''Panthera'' native to the Americas. With a body length of up to and a weight of up to , it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the th ...

god who was patron of the city, the temple of Awilix, the patron goddess of one of the noble houses, the temple of Jakawitz, a mountain deity who was also a noble patron and the temple of Qʼuqʼumatz, the Feathered Serpent, the patron of the royal house. The main ballcourt was placed between the palaces of two of the principal noble houses. Palaces, or ', were spread throughout the city. There was also a platform that was used for gladiatorial sacrifice. The area of Greater Qʼumarkaj was divided into four major political division, one for each of the most important ruling lineages, and also encompassed a number of smaller satellites sites, including Chisalin, Pismachiʼ, Atalaya and Pakaman. The site core is open to the public and includes basic infrastructure, including a small site museum.

Etymology

Qʼumarkaj comes from the Kʼicheʼ ''Qʼumqaraqʼaj''. While often translated as "place of old reeds" or "place of rotted cane",Sharer 2000, p.490. the name Qʼumaʼrkaʼaaj translates more precisely as "rotted reed houses" (qʼumaʼr = "rotten"; kaʼaaj = "house or shack built of cane and reeds"). It was translated as ''Tecpan Utatlan'' by the Nahuatl-speaking

Tlaxcala Tlaxcala (; , ; from nah, Tlaxcallān ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tlaxcala ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Tlaxcala), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Political divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is ...

n allies of the Spanish

conquistador Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (, ; meaning 'conquerors') were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, ...

s,Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.764-765. with ''Tecpan'' being added to distinguish the city as being a seat of rule, equivalent to the '' Tollan'' used in

Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. Wit ...

in earlier times.Fox 1989, p.667.

Location

The ruins of the city are to the west of the modern city of

.Carmack 2001a, p.218. Qʼumarkaj completely occupies of an easily defended

plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; ), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides ...

surrounded by

ravine A ravine is a landform that is narrower than a canyon and is often the product of streambank erosion. The ravines are part of a drainage system feeding the

Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to: Rivers Brazil * Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River * Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul) * Rio Negro (Paraná) * Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro) * Rio Negro (Rondônia) * ...

, which flows into the

Chixoy River The Chixoy River or Río Chixoy is a river in Guatemala. The river is called Río Negro from its sources in the highlands of Huehuetenango and El Quiché until it reaches the Chixoy hydroelectric dam (located at ), where the Río Salamá and Ri ...

and eventually into the

Usumacinta River The Usumacinta River (; named after the howler monkey) is a river in southeastern Mexico and northwestern Guatemala. It is formed by the junction of the Pasión River, which arises in the Sierra de Santa Cruz (in Guatemala) and the Salinas ...

and the

Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico ( es, Golfo de México) is an ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United ...

. A natural causeway to the southeast of the site links the plateau with a wide plain to the east. Qʼumarkaj is the largest in a group of five major sites tightly clustered in an area of , with the area between the sites showing signs of also having been heavily occupied.Carmack & Weeks 1981, p.326. Atalaya and Pakaman lie to the east, Pismachiʼ lies to the south and Chisalin is to the north.

Inhabitants

In the Late Postclassic, the greater Qʼumarkaj area is estimated to have had a population of around 15,000. The inhabitants of Qʼumarkaj were divided socially between the

nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The character ...

and their

vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerai ...

s. The nobles were known as the ''

ajaw Ajaw or Ahau ('Lord') is a pre-Columbian Maya civilization, Maya political title attested from epigraphy, epigraphic inscriptions. It is also the name of the 20th day of the ''tzolkʼin'', the Maya divinatory calendar, on which a ruler's ''kʼat ...

'', while the vassals were known as the '' al kʼajol''. The nobility were the

patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritan ...

descendants of the founding warlords who appear to have entered as conquerors from the

Gulf coast The Gulf Coast of the United States, also known as the Gulf South, is the coast, coastline along the Southern United States where they meet the Gulf of Mexico. The list of U.S. states and territories by coastline, coastal states that have a shor ...

around AD 1200 and who eventually lost their original language and adopted that of their subjects. The nobles were regarded as sacred and bore royal imagery.Coe 1999, p.189. Their vassals served as foot-soldiers and were subject to the laws laid out by the nobility, although they could receive military titles as a result of their battlefield prowess. The social divisions were deep seated and were equivalent to strictly observed

caste Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultur ...

s. The merchants were a privileged class, although they had to make tributary payments to the nobility. In addition to these classes, the population included rural labourers and artisans. Slaves were also held and included both sentenced criminals and prisoners of war. There were twenty-four important lineages, or ', in Qʼumarkaj, closely linked to the palaces in which the nobility attended to their duties; ' means "big house" in Kʼicheʼ, after the palace complexes that the lineages occupied.Carmack & Weeks 1981, p.329. Their duties included marriage negotiations and associated feasting and ceremonial lecturing. These lineages were strongly patrilineal and were grouped into four larger, more powerful ' that chose the rulers of the city. At the time of the

Conquest Conquest is the act of military subjugation of an enemy by force of arms. Military history provides many examples of conquest: the Roman conquest of Britain, the Mauryan conquest of Afghanistan and of vast areas of the Indian subcontinent, ...

, the four ruling ' were the Kaweq, the Nijaib, the Saqik and the Ajaw Kʼicheʼ. The Kaweq and the Nijaib included nine principal lineages each, the Ajaw Kʼicheʼ included four and the Saqik had two. As well as choosing the king and king elect, the ruling Kaweq dynasty also had a lineage that produced the powerful priests of Qʼuqʼumatz, who may have served as stewards of the city. The Kʼicheʼ kingdom was ruled by a king, a king-elect and two captains,Coe 1999, p.190. a four-way joint rule embodied in four leaders, one from each of the four most important lineages in the city of Qʼumarkaj. This form of rule was also known among the Maya of Yucatan. The ruling lineage was the Kaweq ("Rain") dynasty, that chose both the king and the king-elect. The king was known as the ''ajpop'', "He of the Mat". The king-elect bore the title of ''ajpop kʼamha'' and assisted the king until he became king himself.Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.717. The Nijaib and the Saqik noble houses chose the ''qʼalel'' (supreme judge) and the Ajaw Kʼicheʼ chose the ''atzij winaq'' (speaker).

History

Ceramic remains from the site include pieces that date as far back as the Preclassic Period but the majority of finds date to the Late Postclassic and the height of the Kʼicheʼ kingdom.Kelly 1996, p.201.

Founding and expansion

The site was founded by king Qʼuqʼumatz around 1400 for its defensive position, however there is some disagreement as to whether he is a historical or a mythological figure.Carmack 2001b, p.178. Qʼuqʼumatz is Kʼiche for feathered serpent, and feathered serpent is used as a title in other parts of

. It is probable that Qʼuqʼumatz was really the title of another ''ajpop'' mentioned in the sources, Kotujaʼ, and was actually the same individual. In the ''Título de los Señores de Totonicapán'', an early Colonial era Kʼicheʼ document, he is listed as Qʼuqʼumatz Kotujaʼ.Carmack 2001b, p.181. In the same title, his father is listed as Kotujaʼ Qʼuqʼumatz, and there is confusion in the Kʼicheʼ documents as to whether they were one and the same, or father and son with very similar names. Kʼotuja Qʼuqʼumatz married Xlem, daughter of the king of the Tzʼutujils of Malaj, a precolumbian settlement near modern-day

San Lucas Tolimán San Lucas Tolimán is a municipality in the Sololá department of Guatemala. The town of 17,000 people sits on the southeastern shore of Lago de Atitlán. The population is 90–95% Highland Maya. There is a population of about the same size livi ...

, on the shores of Lake Atitlán. Great magical powers were attributed to Qʼuqʼumatz and he was said to be able to transform himself into a snake, an eagle, a jaguar and blood.Carmack 2001a, p.161. Qʼuqʼumatz had several children, one of whom (Kʼiqʼab) became king after him. Qʼuqʼumatz was killed in battle against the Kʼoja Maya. Qʼuqʼumatz greatly expanded the Kʼicheʼ kingdom, first from Pismachiʼ and later from Qʼumarkaj. At this time, the Kʼicheʼs were closely allied with the Kaqchikels. Qʼuqʼumatz sent his daughter to marry the lord of the Kʼoja, a Maya people based in the Cuchumatan mountains, somewhere between Sacapulas and

Huehuetenango Huehuetenango () is a city and municipality in the highlands of western Guatemala. It is also the capital of the department of Huehuetenango. The city is situated from Guatemala City, and is the last departmental capital on the Pan-American High ...

. Instead of marrying her and submitting to the Kʼicheʼ-Kaqchikel alliance, Tekum Sikʼom, the Kʼoja king, killed the offered bride. This act initiated a war between the Kʼicheʼ-Kaqchikel of Qʼumarkaj and the Kʼoja. Qʼuqʼumatz died in the resulting battle against the Kʼoja. With the death of his father in battle against the Kʼoja, his son and heir Kʼiqʼab swore vengeance, and two years later he led the Kʼicheʼ-Kaqchikel alliance against his enemies, together with the ''Ajpop Kʼamha'' (king-elect).Carmack 2001a, p.162. The Kʼicheʼ-led army entered Kʼoja at first light, killed Tekum Sikʼom and captured his son. Kʼiqʼab recovered the bones of his father and returned to Qʼumarkaj with many prisoners and all the

jade Jade is a mineral used as jewellery or for ornaments. It is typically green, although may be yellow or white. Jade can refer to either of two different silicate minerals: nephrite (a silicate of calcium and magnesium in the amphibole group ...

and

metal A metal (from ancient Greek, Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electrical resistivity and conductivity, e ...

that the Kʼoja possessed, after conquering various settlements in the Sacapulas area, and the

Mam people The Mam are an indigenous people in the western highlands of Guatemala and in south-western Mexico who speak the Mam language. Most Mam (617,171) live in Guatemala, in the departments of Huehuetenango, San Marcos, and Quetzaltenango.

near

Zaculeu Zaculeu or Saqulew is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the highlands of western Guatemala, about outside the modern city of Huehuetenango. Occupation at the site dates to the Early Classic period (AD 250–600) of Mesoameric ...

. Kʼiqʼab was said to have had magical powers like his father. Kʼiqʼab was a particularly warlike king and during his reign he greatly expanded the kingdom to include

Rabinal Rabinal is a small town, with a population of 15,157 (2018 census),Citypopulation.de
Population of cities & to ...

Cobán Cobán ( kek, Kob'an), fully Santo Domingo de Cobán, is the Capital (political), capital of the Departments of Guatemala, department of Alta Verapaz in central Guatemala. It also serves as the administrative center for the surrounding Cobán mun ...

and

Quetzaltenango Quetzaltenango (, also known by its Maya name Xelajú or Xela ) is both the seat of the namesake Department and municipality, in Guatemala. The city is located in a mountain valley at an elevation of above sea level at its lowest part. It m ...

, and extended as far west as the Okos River, near the modern border between the

Chiapas Chiapas (; Tzotzil and Tzeltal: ''Chyapas'' ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas), is one of the states that make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 124 municipalities ...

coast of Mexico and Guatemalan Pacific coast. With Kaqchikel help, the eastern frontier of the kingdom was pushed as far as the Motagua River and south as far as Escuintla.Carmack 2001a, p.163. However, he also suffered a humiliating rebellion that eventually resulted in the loss of his key Kaqchikel allies. Kʼiqʼab died around 1475.

Internal strife

In 1470 a rebellion shook Qʼumarkaj during a great celebration that saw a large gathering that included representatives of all the most important highland peoples. Two sons of Kʼiqʼab together with some of his vassals rebelled against their king, killing many high ranking lords, Kaqchikel warriors and members of the Kaweq lineage.Carmack 2001a, p.164. The rebels tried to kill Kʼiqʼab himself but he was defended by sons loyal to him in Pakaman, on the outskirts of the city. As a result of the rebellion, Kʼiqʼab was forced to make concessions to the rebelling Kʼicheʼ lords.Carmack 2001a, p.165. The newly empowered Kʼicheʼ lords turned against their Kaqchikel allies, who were forced to flee Qʼumarkaj and found their own capital at

Iximche Iximcheʼ () (or Iximché using Spanish orthography) is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site in the western highlands of Guatemala. Iximche was the capital of the Late Postclassic Kaqchikel Maya kingdom from 1470 until its abandonm ...

. After the death of king Kʼiqʼab in 1475 the Kʼicheʼ were engaged in warfare against both the Tzʼutujils and the Kaqchikels, perhaps in an attempt to recover the former power of Qʼumarkaj. A short time after the death of Kʼiqʼab, under the leadership of Tepepul, Qʼumarkaj attacked Iximche, the capital of the Kaqchikels, and suffered a disastrous defeat that greatly weakened the Kʼicheʼ.Carmack 2001a, p.166. After this Qʼumarkaj never again directly challenged the Kaqchikels of Iximche. The next leader after Tepepul was Tekum, who was a son of Kʼiqʼab. who led the Kʼicheʼs against the Tzʼutujils and was killed in battle near the south shore of Lake Atitlan.Carmack 2001a, p.167. Late in the history of Qʼumarkaj, the Nijaib appear to have been challenging the ruling Kaweq house for supremacy.Carmack & Weeks 1981, p.331.

Conquest and destruction

In March 1524, the Spanish

Pedro de Alvarado Pedro de Alvarado (; c. 1485 – 4 July 1541) was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala.Lovell, Lutz and Swezey 1984, p. 461. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalva's exploration of the coasts of the Yucat ...

entered Qʼumarkaj when invited by the remaining lords of the Kʼicheʼ, after he defeated the Kʼicheʼ army in the

valley, in a battle that had resulted in the death of Tecun Uman, one of the four lords of the city. Alvarado feared that a trap had been laid for him by the Kʼicheʼ lords but entered the city anyway. However, he encamped on the plain outside the city rather than accepting lodgings inside. Fearing the great number of Kʼicheʼ warriors gathered outside the city and that his cavalry would not be able to manoeuvre in the narrow streets of Qʼumarkaj, he invited the highest lords of the city, Oxib-Keh (the ''ajpop'') and Beleheb-Tzy (the ''ajpop kʼamha'') to visit him in his camp. As soon as they did so, he seized them and kept them as prisoners in his camp.Recinos 1952, 1986, p.75. The Kʼicheʼ warriors, seeing their lords taken prisoner, attacked the Spaniards' indigenous allies and managed to kill one of the Spanish soldiers. At this point Alvarado decided to have the captured Kʼicheʼ lords burnt to death, he then proceeded to burn the entire city.

Modern history

The site was extensively documented in the colonial era.

Francisco Ximénez Francísco Ximénez (November 28, 1666 – c. 1729) was a Dominican priest who is known for his conservation of an indigenous Maya narrative known today as the ''Popol Vuh''. John Woodruff has noted that there remains very few biographical ...

, who first revealed the Kʼicheʼ epic Popul Vuh to the world, visited Qʼumarkaj in the final years of the 17th century. Miguel Rivera y Maestre wrote a report of the site for the government of Guatemala in 1834. In 1840

John Lloyd Stephens John Lloyd Stephens (November 28, 1805October 13, 1852) was an American explorer, writer, and diplomat. Stephens was a pivotal figure in the rediscovery of Maya civilization throughout Middle America and in the planning of the Panama railroad. ...

and

Frederick Catherwood Frederick Catherwood (27 February 1799 – 27 September 1854) was an English artist, architect and explorer, best remembered for his meticulously detailed drawings of the ruins of the Maya civilization. He explored Mesoamerica in the mid 19th c ...

paid a brief visit to the site after reading Rivera y Maestre's report, and Catherwood mapped the site and produced a drawing of the Temple of Tohil. In 1865, the French architect Cesar Daly mapped the five clustered sites that include Qʼumarkaj, although the maps have since been lost. A more detailed survey of the site was made by Alfred P. Maudslay in 1887, being published between 1889 and 1902. Archeological excavations were carried out in the 1950s and the 1970s. Jorge F. Guillemín cleared the ruins in 1956, mapped the surviving structures, as well as mapping the central Kʼicheʼ region and Qʼumarkaj's satellite sites.Kelly 1996, p.202. The

State University of New York at Albany The State University of New York at Albany, commonly referred to as the University at Albany, UAlbany or SUNY Albany, is a public research university with campuses in Albany, Rensselaer, and Guilderland, New York. Founded in 1844, it is one ...

spent three seasons excavating the ruins in the early 1970s. Kenneth Brown of the

University of Houston The University of Houston (UH) is a Public university, public research university in Houston, Texas. Founded in 1927, UH is a member of the University of Houston System and the List of universities in Texas by enrollment, university in Texas ...

started major excavations at Qʼumarkaj in 1977. In 2003, the Proyecto Etnoarqueológico Qʼumʼarkaj ("Qʼumarkaj Ethnoarchaeological Project") has worked to reconstruct the history and socio-political organisation of the city through archaeological studies combined with ethnohistorical investigations.Putzeys et al 2008, p.2. The archaeological site is still used for traditional Maya ceremonies, and is one of the most popular destinations in Guatemala for this kind of ritual activity, especially at the

solstice A solstice is an event that occurs when the Sun appears to reach its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere. Two solstices occur annually, around June 21 and December 21. In many count ...

s and for the New Year.Putzeys et al 2008, p.7.

Site description

Catherwood - Santa Cruz del Quiche - Qumarkaj - Tohil Temple

The site can be visited, although little restoration work has been done to it. Various temple pyramids, the remains of palaces (mostly reduced to mounds of rubble) and a court for playing the

Mesoamerican ballgame The Mesoamerican ballgame ( nah, ōllamalīztli, , myn, pitz) was a sport with ritual associations played since at least 1650 BC by the pre-Columbian people of Ancient Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during ...

can be seen in the site core. In the Greater Qʼumarkaj area there were four ballcourts, one in each of the four major political divisions of the city, testifying to the central role of the ballgame ritual in the sociopolitical organisation of the city. Cut stone originally facing the buildings was taken to build the new buildings of Santa Cruz del Quiché; the ruins were still being mined for construction material through the late 19th century, doing extensive damage to the remains of the old buildings. The major structures of Qʼumarkaj were laid out around a plaza, which had a plaster floor.Coe 1999, p.190. Kelly 1996, p.200. The Kʼicheʼ colonnaded buildings at Qʼumarkaj appear to indicate ties with the distant city of

Mayapan Mayapan (Màayapáan in Modern Maya; in Spanish Mayapán) is a Pre-Columbian Maya site a couple of kilometers south of the town of Telchaquillo in Municipality of Tecoh, approximately 40 km south-east of Mérida and 100 km west of ...

in the Yucatan Peninsula. The parallels also include skull imagery, effigy figure censers, squatting figures and the generous application of stucco. A combined aerial and surface analysis of the ruins has revealed a strongly patterned arrangement with repeating combinations of pyramids, long structures and multipatio residential complexes.Carmack & Weeks 1981, p.330. These repeating combinations appear to be linked to the different ' lineages. In addition there appears to be a larger division of the site, separating it into northwestern and southwestern halves. The dividing line runs from the west along a street to the central plaza, crosses the ballcourt and the plaza, then separates the northern and eastern branches of the site up to the rim of the canyon on the eastern side. This larger site division places six ' complexes in the northern half and six in the south, although this larger division may not have been strictly along lineage lines, since Kaweq-linked structures are found in both halves of the site. The Kaweq and their allies dominated most of the site, with the Nijaib occupying the eastern portion, possibly as far as the satellite site of Atalaya.

Temple of Tohil

The plaza was dominated by the Temple of Tohil, who was a

deity associated with the sun and with rain and was the patron deity of Qʼumarkaj. This temple lies on the western side of the main plaza. The standing remains are reduced to the rubble and mud core of the temple, with an opening where modern Maya still make offerings. As late as the middle of the 19th century, this temple was much better preserved and was described by John Lloyd Stephens. Originally the temple consisted of a steep pyramid with stairways on three sides, all except the west, and a temple building was on the summit. The base was on each side and the exterior of the building was covered in painted stucco. Catherwood's copy of Rivera y Maestre's drawing of the temple showed the body of the pyramid divided into four talud-tablero terraces and 19 steps in each of the three stairways, while Rivera y Maestra's drawing depicts 24 steps and six terraces.Carmack 2001a, p.356.

, writing at the end of the 17th century, described the temple as the tallest building in Qʼumarkaj. The identity of the temple as that of Tohil was known during the lifetime of Ximénez, when 30 steps were visible in each stairway and the remains of the pillars that supported the temple roof were still standing. The building style of the Temple of Tohil is similar to that of the most important temples of Mayapan and

Chichen Itza Chichen Itza , es, Chichén Itzá , often with the emphasis reversed in English to ; from yua, Chiʼchʼèen Ìitshaʼ () "at the mouth of the well of the Itza people" was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Termin ...

, far to the north in the Yucatan Peninsula. The pillars possibly once supported an elaborate masonry roof.Carmack 2001a, p.361. The Temple of Tohil was used for human sacrifice, the bodies of the sacrificial victims were probably hurled down the front stairway before being decapitated and the heads places on a skull rack.Carmack 2001a, p.360. This ''tzumpan'' was likely to have been located immediately to the southeast of the temple, in an area that is now buried under rubble fallen from the temple itself. An image of a jaguar was found painted onto the stucco of the temple, an animal that was a nahual of the ruling Kaweq dynasty.

Temple of Awilix

The Temple of Awilix is on the east side of the plaza. Awilix was the patron goddess of the Nijaib lineage and is identified with Ixbalanque, one of the Hero Twins from the Popul Vuh. According to a drawing made by Rivera y Maestre, the temple of Awilix was not as tall as the temple of Tohil.Carmack 2001a, p.362. This structure was apparently the second most important temple in Qʼumarkaj. Originally this temple was formed of a large rectangular platform supporting a smaller platform and a temple structure on the east side.Kelly 1996, p.200. Carmack 2001a, p.361. A wide stairway climbed the west side of the temple, it was flanked on the lower level by two large talud-tablero panels. The exterior stonework of the building has been completely stripped away. The temple is similar in form to a temple mound on the west side of the first plaza in

, the postclassic capital of the Kaqchikel Maya. There were four principal phases of construction and there is evidence that the temple had been repaired various times prior to the Conquest. The floor under the third phase of construction had been painted dark green. Archaeological investigations found fragments of incense burners underneath the first building phase.

Temple of Jakawitz

A large mound on the south side of the plaza was once the Temple of Jakawitz, a deity of the mountains and the patron of the Ajaw Kʼicheʼ lineage. Like the other structures of Qʼumarkaj, all the stone facing has been robbed, leaving only a rubble and mud core.Carmack 2001a, p.367. This structure was part of a complex that consisted of a patio enclosed by the temple on the northern side, a palace on the southern side and a long building on the east. The Jakawitz complex has not been investigated archaeologically. Drawings by Rivera y Maestre suggest that the temple was a narrow building with four or five terraces.

Temple of Qʼuqʼumatz

The temple of Qʼuqʼumatz was a circular temple of the feathered serpent, and a palace in honour of the Kawek lineage, the ruling dynasty of the city. The temple is now only a circular impression in the surface of the main plaza.Carmack 2001a, p.364. It is located directly between the temples of Tohil and Awilix, slightly north of the central axis of the Tohil temple and slightly south of the axis of the Awilix temple. From the traces left in the plaza it is evident that the temple consisted of a circular wall measuring across, running around a circular platform, with a wide circular passage between the two. The whole structure probably once supported a roof and there were small stone platforms on the east and west sides of the temple, each about wide. The priests of Qʼuqʼumatz were drawn from an important lineage among the ruling Kaweq dynasty and this was likely to have been a source of power and prestige for the Kaweq. The temple of Qʼuqʼumatz must have been completely dismantled very soon after the Spanish Conquest since it is not mentioned by any of the Colonial era visitors, and early drawings of the site show only vegetation where the temple once stood. The tradition of circular temples dedicated to the Feathered Serpent deity was an ancient one in the Mesoamerican cultural region.

Ballcourt

The Ballcourt lies close to, and just south of, the temple of Tohil, on the southwest side of the plaza. The ballcourt still retains its distinctive shape, although the structures have been robbed of their facing. The visible ballcourt was one of four in Qʼumarkaj and was administered by the Popol Winaq branch of the ruling Kaweq lineage. The ballcourt is aligned east-west with a length of . The ballcourt was located exactly between the palaces of the Kaweq and the Ajaw Kʼicheʼ, which were located to the north and the south of the ballcourt.Fox 1991, p.217. Correspondingly, the north range of the ballcourt appears to have been associated with the Kaweq lineage and the south range with the Ajaw Kʼicheʼ lineage.

Palaces

A small palace belonging to the Nijaib lineage was located directly behind the temple of Awilix. These lineage houses, ', are found throughout the city of Qʼumarkaj. As with the other buildings of the site, the outer stonework and plastering has been lost.Carmack 2001a, p.375. The ' are long rectangular structures located beside the plazas upon high platforms. Upon these platforms, the palaces generally consisted of two levels, a lower roofed antechamber with a second, higher level supporting the main rooms of the structure. Some of the larger palaces had several stairways giving access to the antechamber, and multiple doors and pillars opening into the rooms of main building. Another ' palace structure lies to the southeast of the main plaza. Excavations in 1972 uncovered a simple superstructure consisting of a room with a bench at the back and an altar in the middle. Six funerary urns were found in the remains of the palace, one of which was found near the altar and contained rich offerings that included a gold necklace. There were traces of hearths at each extreme of the main chamber.

Other structures

In the central plaza there are traces of thirteen small platforms that once stood there. Three of these, each measuring wide, were located to the north of the Temple of Kʼucumatz.Carmack 2001a, p.373. A line of five similar structures was also located to the south of the same temple, with an alternating pattern of a circular platform, then a square platform, followed by another circular platform and so on. There was a sixth small platform nearby, which was square in shape. These platforms appear to have served as altars. To the south of the line of platforms are the traces of two larger square platforms. One of these measured on each side, the other measured per side. A circular impression lies between these two platforms, which is all that remains of another platform, of a different type, that must have stood there. The larger platforms may also have served as auxiliary altars to those of the principle temples.Carmack 2001a, p.374. A large square platform in the northwest section of the central plaza, measuring on each side, it is located immediately behind the Temple of Tohil and stands high. Although, typically for the site, the outer stonework has been robbed, there are the remains of six layers of plaster on the floor of the platform's upper surface. This platform has been identified as the ''sokibʼal'', the platform of gladiators described in early sources. This platform seems to have been closely linked to the military lineages of the Kaweq, such as the Nima Rajpop Achij. Two large platforms lie in the southeastern section of the main plaza, their use remains unknown.

Caves

In addition, a series of three caves tunnel straight into the limestone immediately to the north of the site. The first and most extensive cave is about 30 meters long with various altars carved into the rock inside. Some modern Quiché, although officially

Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD * Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...

, still burn

candle A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow, that provides light, and in some cases, a fragrance. A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time. A person who makes candle ...

s and

incense Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also b ...

at the ruined temples. The caves may have represented ''Tulán Zuyuá'', the "Place of Seven Caves" described in the Kʼicheʼ origin legend recounted in the Popul Vuh.

Satellite sites

A number of other archaeological sites are included within the area of Greater Qʼumarkaj, usually referred to as 'Greater Utatlan'.

Chisalin

Chisalin is also known by the alternative names of Pilokabʼ and Muqwitz Pilokabʼ.Carmack 2001a, p.221. Chisalin is located a few hundred meters north of Qʼumarkaj. The ruins are located on a narrow strip of land with an area of surrounded by steep ravines. On the northeast side the strip is connected to a plateau that forms a part of the plain to the east of Qʼumarkaj. Chisalin has a small, heavily eroded plaza, and the whole strip is occupied by ruins, with the exception of a small section.

Pismachiʼ

Pismachiʼ (sometimes referred to as Ismachiʼ) occupies a small plateau south of the site core and is surrounded by steep ravines.Carmack 2001a, p.219. The plateau is separated from the Qʼumarkaj plateau by the ravine containing the Ismachiʼ river. Pismachiʼ was the Kʼicheʼ capital before it was moved to nearby Qʼumarkaj, and was probably founded early in the 14th century.Carmack 2001a, p.155. Its location was never forgotten by the local Kʼicheʼs, although it was from time to time lost by outside investigators. French missionary

Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg Abbé Charles-Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg (8 September 1814 – 8 January 1874) was a noted French writer, ethnographer, historian, archaeologist, and Catholic priest. He became a specialist in Mesoamerican studies, travelling extensively i ...

located Pismachiʼ in the middle of the 19th century, it was then lost until it was relocated in 1956 by Jorge Guillemín, working in collaboration with the government of Guatemala, the location was reconfirmed by Robert Carmack in 1969. Although the Pismachiʼ plateau is twice the size of the Qʼumarkaj plateau, the ruins occupy a small area on the southeast portion of the hilltop. The ruins are still used for the rituals of modern Kʼicheʼ shamans.

Atalaya

Atalaya (Spanish for "watchtower") is located at a distance of to the east of the site core.Carmack 2001a, p.222. The site was built upon four terraces that dominated the approach to Qʼumarkaj, at the beginning of the eastern plain occupied by the modern town of Santa Cruz del Quiché.Carmack 2001a, pp.222-223. The site was very small, covering an area of .Carmack 2001a, p.223. A paved avenue (or

sacbe Sacbe at Dzibilchaltun in the Yucatán Arch at the end of the sacbé, Kabah, Yucatán A sacbe, plural sacbeob ( Yucatec Maya: singular ''sakbej'', plural ''sakbejo'ob''), or "white way", is a raised paved road built by the Maya civilization of p ...

) is said by locals to have passed the tower, which was closely linked to the Nijaib lineage. Between Qʼumarkaj and Atalaya there was a place where criminals were punished. Atalaya is used for modern Kʼicheʼ rituals and is the focus of local folklore, which relates that Tecún Umán is buried there and that it is haunted by tzitzimit spirits. Towards the end of the 20th century the majority of the land making up the site still belonged to the Rojas family, descendants of the kings of Qʼumarkaj.

Pakaman

Pakaman is located east of Atalaya and east of Qʼumarkaj. The same ''sakbe'' that passed the north side of Atalaya is said to pass south of Pakaman. The original name of Pakaman is likely to have been ''Panpetaq'' ("place of arrival") and was the first important outpost on the entry road to Qʼumarkaj.

Notes

References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *