Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler

Psychopathography of Adolf Hitler is an umbrella term for psychiatric (pathographic, psychobiographic) literature that deals with the hypothesis that Adolf Hitler, the leader of Nazi Germany, was mentally ill, although Hitler was never diagnosed with any mental illnesses during his lifetime. Hitler has often been associated with mental disorders such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and psychopathy, both during his lifetime and after his death. Psychiatrists and psychoanalysts who have diagnosed Hitler as having mental disturbance include well-known figures such as Walter C. Langer and Erich Fromm. Other researchers, such as Fritz Redlich, have concluded that Hitler probably did not have these disorders.

Background

Difficulty of Hitler's psychopathography

In psychiatry, pathography has developed a poor reputation, especially diagnostics that have been carried out ''ex post'', without the direct examination of the patient. It is even considered unethical (see Goldwater rule). The German psychiatrist Hans Bürger-Prinz went so far as to state that any remote diagnostics constitute a "fatal abuse of psychiatry". The immense range of mental disorders that Hitler has been credited with over time indicates how inconclusive this method can be (see table). Another example of the deficiencies present in many of the following Hitler-pathographies is an either completely absent or grossly abbreviated discussion of the abundance of publications which have already been submitted on this subject by other authors.

In the case of Hitler, psychopathography poses particular problems. Firstly, authors who write about Hitler's personal matters have to deal with the issue that a possibly voyeuristic readership uncritically accepts even the most sparsely proven speculations – such as that which happened in the case of Lothar Machtan's book '' The Hidden Hitler'' (2001). Even more concerning is the warning issued by some authors that pathologizing Hitler would inevitably mean discharging him of at least some responsibility for his actions. Others fear that by pathologizing or demonizing Hitler, all the blame for crimes of Nazi Germany could be placed entirely on him, whilst the populace and those in positions of power who enabled Hitler to rule would consequently be relieved from responsibility. Famed is Hannah Arendt's coinage of the phrase the "banality of evil"; in 1963, she stated that for a Nazi perpetrator as Adolf Eichmann, mental normality and the ability to commit mass murder were not mutually exclusive. Harald Welzer came to a similar conclusion in his book ''Täter. Wie aus ganz normalen Menschen Massenmörder werden''.

In his 2015 biography, Peter Longerich pointed out how Hitler implemented his political goals as a strong dictator, with assertiveness, high readiness to assume risk and unlimited power. Some authors were fundamentally opposed to any attempt to ''explain'' Hitler, for example by psychological means. Claude Lanzman went further, labeling such attempts "obscene"; after the completion of his film ''Shoah'' (1985), he felt such attempts bordered on Holocaust denial, with particular criticism directed towards the historian Rudolph Binion.

As the psychiatrist Jan Ehrenwald has pointed out, the question as to how a possibly mentally ill Hitler could have gained millions of enthusiastic followers who supported his policies until 1945 has often been neglected. Daniel Goldhagen argued in 1996 that Hitler's political ascent was not in any way related to his psychopathology, but rather was a consequence of the precarious social conditions that existed at that time in Germany. On the other hand, some authors have noted that figures such as Charles Manson and Jim Jones, who have been described as having a severe mental illness such as schizophrenia, nonetheless succeeded in having a tremendous influence on their groups of followers.Coolidge, Frederic L.; Davis, Felicia L.; Segal, Daniel L..
Understanding Madmen: A SSM-IV Assessment of Adolf Hitler
''. In: ''Individual Differences Research'' 5, 2007, P. 30–43. Early on, the view was also expressed that Hitler was able to handle his psychopathology skillfully, and was aware of how he could use his symptoms to effectively steer the emotions of his audience. Still other authors have suggested that Hitler's followers themselves were mentally disturbed;For example Langer

New York Times

(Online); Eckhardt, William. ''The Values of Fascism''. In: ''Journal of Social Issues'', Volume 24, 1968, P. 89–104; Muslin, Hyman. ''Adolf Hitler. The Evil Self''. In: ''Psychohistory Review'', 20, 1992, P. 251–270; Berke, Joseph. ''The Wellsprings of Fascism: Individual Malice, Group Hatreds and the Emergence of National Narcissism'', Free Associations, Vol. 6, Part 3 (Number 39), 1996; Lothane, Zvi.
Omnipotence, or the delusional aspect of ideology, in relation to love, power, and group dynamics
'. In: ''American Journal of Psychoanalysis'', 1997, Volume 57 (1), P. 25–46 evidence for this claim however was not produced. The question how Hitler's individual psychopathology might have been ''linked'' with the enthusiasm of his followers was first discussed in 2000 by the interdisciplinary team of authors Matussek/Matussek/Marbach.

List of alleged disorders

Hysteria

Hitler in Pasewalk military hospital (1918)

Oswald Bumke, psychiatrist and contemporary of Hitler, assumed Hitler was never examined by a psychiatrist. The only psychiatrist whom Hitler demonstrably met personally – the Munich Professor Kurt Schneider – was not Hitler's physician. While medical documents that allow conclusions about Hitler's physical health have been found and made accessible for research (also see Adolf Hitler#Health), there is a lack of original documents that would allow for an assessment of Hitler's mental condition.

Speculations about a possible psychiatric evaluation of Hitler, in his lifetime, focus on his stay in a military hospital, Pasewalk, at the end of 1918. Hitler was admitted to the hospital after mustard gas poisoning, to which he was exposed during a battle in Flanders. In '' Mein Kampf'', he mentions this hospital stay in connection with his painful temporary blindness, and with the "misfortune" and "madness" of the German Revolution of 1918–19 and of the German War defeat, both of which he learned about during his recovery, which triggered a renewed blindness. Hitler, as well as his early biographers, took great notice of his strong physical response to the historic events, because this relapse into blindness identified the turning point in which Hitler felt the vocation to become a politician and Germany's savior.

Already in Hitler's lifetime, some psychiatrists judged that such a relapse without organic explanation must be described as a hysterical symptom. The diagnosis of hysteria had its peak heyday with Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, but was still in use in the 1930s and 1940s. Loss of the sense organs were among typical symptoms, in addition to self-centered and theatrical behavior. The psychiatrist Karl Wilmanns supposedly said in a lecture: "Hitler has had a hysterical reaction after being buried alive in the field"; Wilmanns then lost his position in 1933.Pieper, Werner. ''Highdelberg: Zur Kulturgeschichte der Genussmittel und psychoaktiven Drogen'', 2000, P. 228; Lidz, R.; Wiedemann, H. R. ''Karl Wilmanns (1873–1945). … einige Ergänzungen und Richtigstellungen''. In: ''Fortschritte der Neurologie'', 1989, Volume 57, P. 160–161 His assistant, Hans Walter Gruhle, suffered professional disadvantages due to similar statements. In modern psychiatry, the term "hysteria" is no longer in use; today, corresponding symptoms are rather being associated with dissociative disorder or histrionic personality disorder.

Little is known about Hitler's hospital stay. It is not even certain what symptoms were presented. Hitler's medical record from Pasewalk that could confirm or refute a diagnosis was already considered lost in the late 1920s.Armbruster, Jan. ''Edmund Robert Forster (1878–1933). Lebensweg und Werk eines deutschen Neuropsychiaters'', Matthiesen: Husum, 2006.

''A Psychiatric Study of Hitler'' (1943)

During World War II, the United States intelligence agency, OSS, collected information about Hitler's personality and commissioned a research team led by Walter Charles Langer to develop psychological reports in 1943. In one of these reports, titled ''A Psychiatric Study of Hitler'', the hypothesis was developed that Hitler was treated in Pasewalk by the psychiatrist Edmund Forster, who had in 1933 committed suicide for fear of reprisals. The starting point of this report was the testimony of the psychiatrist Karl Kroner who also worked in the hospital in 1918. Kroner confirmed in particular that Forster had examined Hitler and that he had diagnosed him with "hysteria". The report was held under lock and key, but in the early 1970s rediscovered by the American Hitler-biographer John Toland. However at least some reject Kroner's testimony. Jan Armbruster and Peter Theiss-Abendroth (2016) write "Having barely escaped a German concentration camp, Karl Kroner found it difficult to make a living in Iceland because his medical diploma wasn't recognized by the local authorities. Thus, he may have tried to accelerate his visa process to the US by making himself irreplaceable. Given the obvious exaggerations and distortions in his narrative and the tremendous pressure he was under, he may serve as a witness for a number of things – but certainly not for such a crucial aspect of history as the one in question here."

''I, the Eye Witness'' (1963)

In 1939, the Austrian physician and writer Ernst Weiss, who lived in France in exile, wrote a novel, ''Ich, der Augenzeuge'' ("I, the eye witness"), a fictional autobiography of a doctor who cured a "hysterical" soldier A. H. from Braunau who had lost his eyesight in the trenches. The plot is set in a Reichswehr hospital at the end of 1918. Since his knowledge could be dangerous to the Nazis, the (fictional) physician is placed in a concentration camp in 1933 and released only after he surrenders the medical records.

Ernst Weiss, the author, committed suicide after the entry of German troops in Paris. He was Jewish and had feared deportation. His novel was published in 1963. Weiss's knowledge of Hitler's hospital stay was believed to have come from the contemporary biographical literature.

Speculation about hypnotherapy

Starting with the assumptions of the intelligence report and following Weiss' novel, a series of researchers and authors have, consecutively, developed suspicions about a possible involvement of Forster in a supposedly securely established hypnotherapy. These reconstructions are questionable not only because they do not provide any new evidence; they also exclude alternative interpretations from the outset, widely disregard the historical context, and overlook even that Forster held a view of hysteria that would have led him to other methods of treatment than hypnosis.
*Rudolph Binion, a historian at Brandeis University, considers the supposed hysteria diagnosis as a fallacy; in his 1976 book ''Hitler among the Germans'', however, he picked up the secret service's suspicions and expanded them. Binion assumed that Weiss had met Forster in person and received from him a copy of the medical record on which his novel then was based. Following the novel, Binion then assumes that Forster subjected the blind, fanatical Hitler to a hypnotic suggestion treatment, and later, after being suspended from the civil service and in fear of persecution by the Gestapo, took his own life.Binion, Rudolph. ''Hitler among the Germans'', Elsevier: New York, 1976. . The only evidence for these assumptions is construed from Forster's legacy, while there isn't even proof of what sort of contact Forster had with Hitler.
*In 1998, David E. Post, a forensic psychiatrist at Louisiana State University, published a paper in which the hypothesis that Forster had treated Hitler's supposed hysteria with hypnosis was depicted as a proven fact. Post did not include any documented personal research.
* Partially inspired by Binion, British neuropsychologist David Lewis published ''The Man Who Invented Hitler'' (2003). Lewis portrayed Forster's hypnosis as fact and a reason for Hitler's transformation from an obedient soldier to a strong-willed, charismatic politician. In the book, Forster is called the "creator" of Hitler.
*Another book that is inspired by Binion was published by Manfred Koch-Hillebrecht, a German psychologist and professor emeritus of politics at the University of Koblenz: ''Hitler. Ein Sohn des Krieges'' (2003). Koch-Hillebrecht tried to prove that Hitler had post-traumatic stress disorder and describes how Forster subjected his alleged patient to shock therapy in order to make him able to fight again in combat.Koch-Hillebrecht, Manfred. ''Hitler. Ein Sohn des Krieges. Fronterlebnis und Weltbild'', Herbig: Munich, 2003.
Hitlers Therapie
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung; Armbruster (2009)
*In Germany in 2004, lawyer Bernhard Horstmann published his book ''Hitler in Pasewalk'', in which he describes how Forster had "healed" Hitler with a "brilliantly" used hypnosis not only from his hysterical blindness, but also endowed him with the feeling of omnipotence and the sense of mission that became so characteristic for Hitler as a politician. In this book, no other evidence is put forward as the story of Weiss' novel.
*In 2006, Franziska Lamott, professor of forensic psychotherapy at the University of Ulm, wrote in an article: ''" ... as confirmed in the medical records of treatment of Corporal Adolf Hitler by the psychiatrist Prof. Edmund Forster, the latter freed him from hysterical blindness using hypnosis"''.

Critical comments on these speculations appeared early on. But as psychiatric historian Jan Armbruster (University of Greifswald) judged, they were not sufficiently convincing, such as in the case of journalist Ottmar Katz, author of a biography of Hitler's personal physician, Theodor Morell (1982). Katz suggested that Karl Kroner might have had personal reasons to report some untruths: living as a Jewish refugee in Reykjavik and forced to earn his life as a blue-collar worker, Kroner possibly hoped that the U.S. authorities would not only acknowledge him as a key witness but also help him to reestablish his medical practice. A comprehensive plausibility test was finally performed by the Berlin psychiatrist and psychotherapist Peter Theiss-Abendroth in 2008. In 2009, Armbruster carried this analysis forward, dismantled the hypotheses of Hitler's hysteria diagnosis and hypnotherapy completely, and showed in detail how the story of Hitler's alleged treatment by Forster became progressively elaborate and detailed between 1943 and 2006, not due to the evaluation of historical documents, but to continuous addition of narrative embellishments. Furthermore, Armbruster's work offers the to date most comprehensive critique of the methodological weaknesses of many Hitler pathographies.

Walter C. Langer (1943)

One of the few authors that stated Hitler showed signs of hysteria without using the Pasewalk episode and Hitler's alleged treatment by Forster as main evidence, was the American psychoanalyst Walter C. Langer. Langer secretly wrote his study in 1943 on behalf of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). He and his team conducted interviews with many people who were available to the American intelligence services and who knew Hitler personally. They came to the final judgment that Hitler was "a hysterical at the edge of schizophrenia". The study was for a long time held under lock and key and published in 1972 under the title ''The Mind of Adolf Hitler''.Langer, Walter C. ''The Mind of Adolf Hitler. The Secret Wartime Report'', Basic Books, 1972.

Psychosis

Already in his lifetime, many elements in Hitler's personal beliefs and conduct were classified by psychiatrists as signs of schizophrenia, for example, his faith that he was chosen by fate to liberate the German people from their supposed most dangerous threat, the Jews.

W. H. D. Vernon (1942) and Henry Murray (1943)

One of the first who credited Hitler with the classic symptoms of schizophrenia was the Canadian psychiatrist W.H.D. Vernon. In 1942, he argued in an essay that Hitler was experiencing hallucinations, hearing voices, paranoia and megalomania. Vernon wrote that Hitler's personality structure – although overall within the range of normal – should be described as leaning towards the paranoid type.Vernon, W. H. D.
"Hitler, the man – notes for a case history"
(PDF-Datei; 2.8 MB)''. In: ''The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology'', Volume 37, Issue 3, July 1942, P. 295–308; compare Medicus: "A Psychiatrist Looks at Hitler". In: ''The New Republic'', April 26th, 1939, P. 326–327.

One year later, Henry Murray, a psychologist at Harvard University, developed these views even further. Like Walter C. Langer, Murray wrote his report, '' Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler'', on behalf of the OSS. He came to the conclusion that Hitler, next to hysterical signs, showed all the classic symptoms of schizophrenia: hypersensitivity, panic attacks, irrational jealousy, paranoia, omnipotence fantasies, delusions of grandeur, belief in a messianic mission, and extreme paranoia. He considered him as perched between hysteria and schizophrenia, but stressed that Hitler possessed considerable control over his pathological tendencies and that he deliberately used them in order to stir up nationalist sentiments among the Germans and their hatred of alleged persecutors. Like Langer, Murray thought it likely that Hitler eventually would lose faith in himself and in his "destiny", and then commit suicide.Murray, Henry A.
Analysis of the personality of Adolf Hitler. With predictions of his future behavior and suggestions for dealing with him now and after Germany's surrender
', 1943. Onlin
Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler
/ref>

Wolfgang Treher (1966)

The attempt to prove that Hitler had a fully developed psychosis in a clinical sense has only occasionally been made. An example is the book ''Hitler, Steiner, Schreber'' (1966) by the Freiburg psychiatrist Wolfgang Treher. Treher explains that both Rudolf Steiner (whose anthroposophy he attributes to mental illness) and Hitler had schizophrenia.Treher, Wolfgang. ''Hitler, Steiner, Schreber – Gäste aus einer anderen Welt. Die seelischen Strukturen des schizophrenen Prophetenwahns'', Oknos: Emmendingen, 1966 (newer edition: Oknos, 1990).
Wolfgang Treher


He writes that both managed to stay in touch with reality because they had the opportunity to create their own organizations (Steiner: the Anthroposophical Society; Hitler: the NSDAP and its many subdivisions) that they could influence according to their delusions – and therefore avoid the, normally expected, "schizophrenic withdrawal". Treher finds that Hitler's megalomania and paranoia are quite striking.

Edleff Schwaab (1992)

In 1992, German-American clinical psychologist Edleff H. Schwaab published his psychobiography ''Hitler's Mind'' in which he states that Hitler's imagination – particularly his obsession with the supposed threat posed by the Jews – must be described as the outcome of a paranoia. The cause for this disorder Schwaab suspects to be rooted in a traumatic childhood that was dominated by a depressive mother and a tyrannical father.Schwaab, Edleff H. ''Hitler's Mind. A Plunge into Madness'', Praeger: Westport, CT, 1992.

Paul Matussek, Peter Matussek, Jan Marbach (2000)

The book ''Hitler – Karriere eines Wahns'' (2000) is the result from a joint effort of the psychiatrist Paul Matussek, the media theorist Peter Matussek, and the sociologist Jan Marbach, to overcome the tradition of one-dimensional psychiatric pathography and to seek an interdisciplinary approach instead, taking into account socio-historical dimensions. The investigation is focused not so much on Hitler's personal psychopathology, but rather on a description of the "interaction" between individual and collective factors that accounted for the overall dynamics of the Hitler madness. The book specifies the interplay between Hitler's leader role (which was charged with psychotic symptoms) on the one hand, and the fascination that this role invoked in his followers on the other hand. The authors conclude that the Nazi crimes had indeed been an expression of madness, but of a madness which was so strongly accepted by the public that the psychotic Hitler and his followers were factually stabilizing each other in their "mad" worldview.Matussek, Paul; Matussek, Peter; Marbach, Jan . ''Hitler – Karriere eines Wahns'', Herbig: Munich, 2000.
Das Phänomen HitlerReview
Marbach, Jan
''Zum Verhältnis von individueller Schuld und kollektiver Verantwortung''
Lecture given on the 35th annual conference of the "Deutschsprachige Gesellschaft für Kunst und Psychopathologie des Ausdrucks e.V.", October 25. – 28., 2003, Munich

Frederic L. Coolidge, Felicia L. Davis, Daniel L. Segal (2007)

In terms of methodology, the most elaborate psychological assessment of Hitler was undertaken in 2007 by a research team at the University of Colorado. This study differed from all earlier works by its open, exploratory approach. The team tested systematically which mental disorders Hitler's behavior may or may not have been indicating. It was the first Hitler pathography that was consistently empirical. The psychologists and historians reviewed passed down reports by people who knew Hitler, and evaluated these accounts in accordance with a self-developed diagnostic tool that allowed for a wide range of personality, clinical, and neuropsychological disturbances to be measured. According to this study, Hitler showed obvious traits of paranoia, but also of anti-social, sadistic, and narcissistic personality disorders, and distinct traits of posttraumatic stress disorder.

Organically caused psychotic symptoms

Hitler's alleged psychotic symptoms have repeatedly been attributed to possible organic causes. The psychiatrist Günter Hermann Hesse, for example, was convinced that Hitler experienced long-term consequences of gas poisoning during World War I.Hesse, Günter.
Hitlers neuropsychiatrischen Störungen. Folgen seiner Lost-Vergiftung?
'

Syphilis

In the late 1980s, Ellen Gibbels (University of Cologne) attributed the limb trembling in Hitler's later years to Parkinson's disease, a widely held consensus in the research community. However, some researchers interpreted Hitler's tremor as a symptom of advanced syphilis, most recently the American historian Deborah Hayden. Hayden links the general paresis from which Hitler—in her opinion—had had since 1942, to the mental decline in the last years of his life, especially to his "paranoid temper tantrums".Hayden, Deborah. ''Pox. Genius, Madness, and the Mysteries of Syphilis''. Basic Books. 2003.
Hitler syphilis theory revived
Heinrich Himmler's physician, Felix Kersten, allegedly had access to a medical report that was held under lock and key that supposedly proved that Hitler had syphilis. (Kessel, Joseph. ''The Man With the Miraculous Hands: The Fantastic Story of Felix Kersten, Himmler's Private Doctor'', Burford Books: Springfield, NJ, 2004. ; see als
Hitler the Paretic (Syphilitic)
/ref> The physician Frederick Redlich however reported that there is no evidence that suggests that Hitler had syphilis.

Parkinson's disease

The possibility that Hitler had Parkinson's disease was first investigated by Ernst-Günther Schenck and later by Ellen Gibbels. In 1994, Gibbels published a paper that pursued the question if Hitler's nerve disease could also have impaired him mentally.Gibbels, Ellen. ''Hitlers Nervenkrankheit: Eine neurologisch- psychiatrische Studie''.
(PDF; 6.9 MB) In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 1994, Volume 42 (2), P. 155–220

Psychopathy / antisocial personality disorder

Given the inhumanity of his crimes, Hitler was early on linked with "psychopathy", a severe personality disorder whose main symptoms are a great or complete lack of empathy, social responsibility and conscience. The biologically determined concept still plays a role in the psychiatric forensic science, but it is no longer found in the modern medical classification systems (DSM-IV and ICD-10). Today, corresponding clinical pictures are mostly classified as signs of an antisocial personality disorder. However, the symptomatology is rare, and unlike in popular discourse, where the classification of Hitler as a "psychopath" is commonplace, psychiatrists have only occasionally endeavored to associate him with psychopathy or antisocial personality disorder.

Gustav Bychowski (1948)

Early on, some Hitler pathographies took not only psychological, but also historical and sociological aspects into account. This interdisciplinary approach had been developed by the psychiatrist Wilhelm Lange-Eichbaum back in 1928. The earliest socio-psychological pathography of Hitler appeared in 1948 in Gustav Bychowski anthology ''Dictators and Disciples''. In this volume, Bychowski, a Polish-American psychiatrist, compared several historical figures who have successfully carried out a coup d'etat: Julius Caesar, Oliver Cromwell, Maximilien Robespierre, Hitler and Josef Stalin. He came to the conclusion that all of these men had an abundance of traits that must by classified as "psychopathic" such as the tendency to act out impulses or to project their own hostile impulses onto other people or groups.Bychowski, Gustav. ''Dictators and Disciples. From Caesar to Stalin: a psychoanalytic interpretation of History'', International Universities Press: New York, 1948

Desmond Henry, Dick Geary, Peter Tyrer (1993)

In 1993, the interdisciplinary team Desmond Henry, Dick Geary and Peter Tyrer published an essay in which they expressed their common view that Hitler had antisocial personality disorder as defined in ICD-10. Tyrer, a psychiatrist, was convinced that Hitler furthermore showed signs of paranoia and of histrionic personality disorder.Henry, Desmond; Geary, Dick; Tyrer, Peter. ''Adolf Hitler. A Reassessment of His Personality Status''. In: Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, Volume 10, 1993, P. 148–151

Depth psychological approaches

While psychiatrically oriented authors, when dealing with Hitler, were primarily endeavoring to diagnose him with a specific clinical disorder, some of their colleagues who follow a depth psychological doctrine as the psychoanalytic school of Sigmund Freud, were first and foremost interested in ''explaining'' his monstrously destructive behavior. In accordance to these doctrines, they assumed that Hitler's behavior and the development of his character were propelled by unconscious processes that were rooted in his earliest years. Pathographies that are inspired by depth psychology, typically attempt to reconstruct the scenario of Hitler's childhood and youth. Occasionally, authors such as Gerhard Vinnai started out with a depth psychological analysis, but then advanced far beyond the initial approach.

Erich Fromm (1973)

Among the most famous Hitler pathographies is Erich Fromm's 1973 published book ''Anatomy of Human Destructiveness''. Fromm's goal was to determine the causes of human violence. He took his knowledge of the person of Hitler from several sources such as the memoir of Hitler's boyhood friend August Kubizek (1953), Werner Maser

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