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Protoplasm (; ) is the living part of a
cell Cell most often refers to: * Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life Cell may also refer to: Locations * Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a religious recluse lives, alternatively the small precursor of a monastery ...
that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions,
monosaccharides Monosaccharides (from Greek ''monos'': single, '' sacchar'': sugar), also called simple sugars, are the simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units (monomers) from which all carbohydrates are built. They are usually colorless, water-solu ...
, amino acid, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc. In some definitions, it is a general term for the
cytoplasm In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The ...
(e.g., Mohl, 1846), but for others, it also includes the
nucleoplasm The nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, is the type of protoplasm that makes up the cell nucleus, the most prominent organelle of the eukaryotic cell. It is enclosed by the nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane. The nucleoplasm ...
(e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the protoplast 'the entire cell, excluding the cell wall''was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger's '(1882)''terms cytoplasm Kölliker_(1863),_originally_as_synonym_for_protoplasm''.html" ;"title="Albert_von_Kölliker.html" ;"title="'coined by Kölliker_(1863),_originally_as_synonym_for_protoplasm''">Albert_von_Kölliker.html"_;"title="'coined_by_Albert_von_Kölliker">Kölliker_(1863),_originally_as_synonym_for_protoplasm''and_nucleoplasm_ The_nucleoplasm,_also_known_as_karyoplasm,_is_the_type_of_protoplasm_that_makes_up_the_cell_nucleus,_the_most_prominent_organelle_of_the__eukaryotic_cell._It_is_enclosed_by_the_nuclear_envelope,_also_known_as_the_nuclear_membrane._The_nucleoplasm__...
_([''term_coined_by_Edouard_Van_Beneden.html" ;"title="Albert von Kölliker">Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm''">Albert_von_Kölliker.html" ;"title="'coined by Albert von Kölliker">Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm''and
nucleoplasm The nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, is the type of protoplasm that makes up the cell nucleus, the most prominent organelle of the eukaryotic cell. It is enclosed by the nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane. The nucleoplasm ...
([''term coined by Edouard Van Beneden">van Beneden (1875), or''] karyoplasm, [''used by''] Walther Flemming, Flemming [''(1878)''])". The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids (''Chromatoplasm''). Like the nucleus, whether to include the
vacuole A vacuole () is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal, and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic mo ...
in the protoplasm concept is controversial.


Terminology

Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:Battaglia, E. (1985)
Meiosis and mitosis: a terminological criticism
''Annali di Botanica'' (Rome) 43: 101–140. (Table 3, "-plasma derivatives", p. 118). * ''
Urschleim ''Bathybius haeckelii'' was a substance that British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley discovered and initially believed to be a form of primordial matter, a source of all organic life. He later admitted his mistake when it proved to be just the produc ...
'' ( Oken, 1802, 1809), * ''Protoplasma'' (Purkinje, 1840, von Mohl, 1846), * ''Primordialschlauch'' (primordial utricle, von Mohl, 1846), * '' sarcode'' (
Dujardin Dujardin is a French surname, meaning "from the garden", and may refer to: * Charlotte Dujardin, British dressage rider * Édouard Dujardin, French writer * Félix Dujardin (1801–1860), French biologist * Jean Dujardin, French actor and comedia ...
, 1835, 1841), * ''
Cytoplasm In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The ...
a'' ( Kölliker, 1863), * ''Hautschicht/Körnerschicht'' ( ectoplasm/
endoplasm Endoplasm generally refers to the inner (often granulated), dense part of a cell's cytoplasm. This is opposed to the ectoplasm which is the outer (non-granulated) layer of the cytoplasm, which is typically watery and immediately adjacent to the ...
, Pringsheim, 1854; Hofmeister, 1867),Wayne (2009), p. 134. * ''Grundsubstanz'' (
ground substance Ground substance is an amorphous gel-like substance in the extracellular space that contains all components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) except for fibrous materials such as collagen and elastin. Ground substance is active in the development, m ...
,
Cienkowski Lev Semyonovich Tsenkovsky (Leon Cienkowski, russian: Лев Семенович Ценковский) (October 1 ( N.S. October 13), 1822 in Warsaw – September 25 (N.S. October 7), 1887 in Leipzig) was a Polish botanist, protozoologist, b ...
, 1863), *
metaplasm A metaplasm is generic term for almost any kind of alteration, whether intentional or unintentional, in the pronunciation or the orthography of a word. The change may be phonetic only, such as pronouncing ''Mississippi'' as ''Missippi'' in Engli ...
/protoplasm (Hanstein, 1868), *
deutoplasm The deutoplasm comprises the food particles stored in the cytoplasm of an ovum or a cell, as distinguished from protoplasm, the yolk substance. Generally, the deutoplasm accumulates about the nucleus and is heavier than the surrounding cytoplasm. I ...
/protoplasm (van Beneden, 1870), * bioplasm (Beale, 1872), * paraplasm/protoplasm (Kupffer, 1875), * inter-filar substance theory (Velten, 1876) * ''
Hyaloplasm The cytosol, also known as cytoplasmic matrix or groundplasm, is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondri ...
a'' (Pfeffer, 1877), * '' Protoplast'' (Hanstein, 1880), * ''Enchylema/Hyaloplasma'' (Hanstein, 1880), * ''Kleinkörperchen'' or ''Mikrosomen'' (small bodies or
microsomes In cell biology, microsomes are heterogeneous vesicle-like artifacts (~20-200 nm diameter) re-formed from pieces of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) when eukaryotic cells are broken-up in the laboratory; microsomes are not present in healthy, liv ...
, Hanstein, 1882), * paramitome (Flemming, 1882), * '' Idioplasma'' (Nageli, 1884), * ''Zwischensubstanz'' (inter-alveolar substance, Bütschli, 1892), * ''Grundplasma'' (ground plasma, Schütt, 1895), * ''
ergastoplasm The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell, and has many other important functions such as protein folding. It is a type of organelle made up of two subunits – rough endoplasmic reticulum ( ...
e'' (Garnier, 1897), * phaneroplasm/cryptoplasm (Seifriz, 1931), * cytoplasmic matrix (Munson, 1899; ''zytoplasmatische Matrix'', Bergmann, 1956), * ''Protoplasma- oder Zelleinschlüsse'' (protoplasmic or cellular inclusions, Szymonowicz, 1901), * kinoplasm/trophoplasm (Strasburger et at., 1912), *
cytosol The cytosol, also known as cytoplasmic matrix or groundplasm, is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondri ...
(Lardy, 1965).


History

The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek ''protos'' for ''first'', and ''plasma'' for ''thing formed'', and was originally used in religious contexts. It was used in 1839 by J. E. Purkinje for the material of the animal embryo.Purkinje J.E. 1840
Über die Analogien in den Strukturelementen des thierischen und pflanzichen Organismus
In: ''Übersicht der Arbeiten und Veränderungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft für vaterländische Kultur'', Jahre 1839: 81. Later, in 1846
Hugo von Mohl Hugo von Mohl FFRS H FRSE (8 April 1805 – 1 April 1872) was a German botanist from Stuttgart. He was the first person to use the word " protoplasm". Life He was a son of the Württemberg statesman Benjamin Ferdinand von Mohl (1766–18 ...
redefined the term (also named as ''Primordialschlauch'', "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the
cell wall A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mech ...
and the
cell sap A vacuole () is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal, and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic mo ...
(''Zellsaft'') within the
vacuole A vacuole () is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal, and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic mo ...
.von Mohl, H. 1846
Ueber die Saftbewegung im Inneren der Zellen
''Bot. Ztg.'' 4: 73-78, 89-94.
Max Schultze Max Johann Sigismund Schultze (25 March 1825 – 16 January 1874) was a German microscopic anatomist noted for his work on cell theory. Biography Schultze was born in Freiburg im Breisgau (Baden). He studied medicine at Greifswald and Berlin, an ...
in 1861 proposed the "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that ''all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm''.
Thomas Huxley Thomas Henry Huxley (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist and anthropologist specialising in comparative anatomy. He has become known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. The stor ...
(1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance. The protoplasm became an " epistemic thing". Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was. In 1872,
Beale Beale is an English surname. At the time of the British Census of 1881, its relative frequency was highest in Dorset (6.3 times the British average), followed by Huntingdonshire, Hampshire, Sussex, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, Warwickshire, Kent and ...
created the
vitalist Vitalism is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things." Wher ...
term "bioplasm", to contrast with the
materialism Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds matter to be the fundamental substance in nature, and all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. According to philosophical materiali ...
of Huxley.Beale, L. S. (1872).
Bioplasm
'. London: J. & A. Churchill. In 1880, term protoplast was proposed by Hanstein (1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall, and some authors like
Julius von Sachs Julius von Sachs (; 2 October 1832 – 29 May 1897) was a German botanist from Breslau, Prussian Silesia. He is considered the founder of experimental plant physiology and co-founder of modern water culture. Julius von Sachs and Wilhelm Knop a ...
(1882) preferred that name instead of cell.Wayne (2009), p. 15. In 1965, Lardy introduced the term "
cytosol The cytosol, also known as cytoplasmic matrix or groundplasm, is one of the liquids found inside cells (intracellular fluid (ICF)). It is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondri ...
", later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells.Lardy, H. A. 1965. On the direction of pyridine nucleotide oxidation-reduction reactions in gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis. In: ''Control of energy metabolism'', edited by B. Chance, R. Estabrook, and J. R. Williamson. New York: Academic, 1965, p. 245

 By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a vitalism, vitalistic theory of life. Attempts to investigate the
origin of life In biology, abiogenesis (from a- 'not' + Greek bios 'life' + genesis 'origin') or the origin of life is the natural process by which life has arisen from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. The prevailing scientific hypothes ...
through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful. The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the
cell nucleus The cell nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin or , meaning ''kernel'' or ''seed'') is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, h ...
reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of
electron microscopy An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a hi ...
, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown. Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple
organelle In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit, usually within a cell, that has a specific function. The name ''organelle'' comes from the idea that these structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the body, hence ''organelle,'' the ...
s, the cytoskeleton and
biomolecular condensate In biochemistry, biomolecular condensates are a class of membrane-less organelles and organelle subdomains, which carry out specialized functions within the cell. Unlike many organelles, biomolecular condensate composition is not controlled by a ...
s.the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus.


Description


Physical nature

Protoplasm is physically
translucent In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without appreciable scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale (one in which the dimensions a ...
,
granular Granularity (also called graininess), the condition of existing in granules or grains, refers to the extent to which a material or system is composed of distinguishable pieces. It can either refer to the extent to which a larger entity is subd ...
slimy, semifluid or
viscous The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water. Viscosity quantifies the inter ...
. In it, granules of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes
opaque Opacity or opaque may refer to: * Impediments to (especially, visible) light: ** Opacities, absorption coefficients ** Opacity (optics), property or degree of blocking the transmission of light * Metaphors derived from literal optics: ** In lingu ...
when it is heated. It also coagulates on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell. In
eukaryote Eukaryotes () are organisms whose cells have a nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms, are Eukaryotes. They belong to the group of organisms Eukaryota or Eukarya, which is one of the three domains of life. Bacte ...
s, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the
cell nucleus The cell nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin or , meaning ''kernel'' or ''seed'') is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, h ...
is known as the
cytoplasm In cell biology, the cytoplasm is all of the material within a eukaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the cell nucleus. The material inside the nucleus and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The ...
and the portion inside the nucleus as the
nucleoplasm The nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, is the type of protoplasm that makes up the cell nucleus, the most prominent organelle of the eukaryotic cell. It is enclosed by the nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane. The nucleoplasm ...
. In
prokaryote A prokaryote () is a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The word ''prokaryote'' comes from the Greek πρό (, 'before') and κάρυον (, 'nut' or 'kernel').Campbell, N. "Biology:Concepts & Connec ...
s the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in
Gram-negative bacteria Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. They are characterized by their cell envelopes, which are composed of a thin peptidoglycan cell wall ...
the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the
periplasm The periplasm is a concentrated gel-like matrix in the space between the inner cytoplasmic membrane and the bacterial outer membrane called the ''periplasmic space'' in gram-negative bacteria. Using cryo-electron microscopy it has been found that ...
.


Chemical composition

There are about 35 elements, like
carbon Carbon () is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent In chemistry, the valence (US spelling) or valency (British spelling) of an element is the measure of its combining capacity with o ...
,
hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, an ...
,
oxygen Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as wel ...
,
phosphorus Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ear ...
,
sulphur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
,
calcium Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to ...
and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like
water Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
(75-95%),
carbohydrates In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may or may ...
,
ions An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by conven ...
,
proteins Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
,
lipids Lipids are a broad group of naturally-occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The functions of lipids include ...
,
nucleic acids Nucleic acids are biopolymers, macromolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. The two main clas ...
( DNA and
RNA Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) are nucleic acids. Along with lipids, proteins, and carbohydra ...
),
fatty acids In chemistry, particularly in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, f ...
,
glycerol Glycerol (), also called glycerine in British English and glycerin in American English, is a simple triol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic. The glycerol backbone is found in lipids known ...
,
nucleotides Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules w ...
,
nucleosides Nucleosides are glycosylamines that can be thought of as nucleotides without a phosphate group. A nucleoside consists simply of a nucleobase (also termed a nitrogenous base) and a five-carbon sugar (ribose or 2'-deoxyribose) whereas a nucleotide ...
and
minerals In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2 ...
. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.


Functions

Some functions of protoplasm are:- # It provides place where all life functions occur and hypothalamus # The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemicals, gravitation, pricking, electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm. #
Cyclosis Cytoplasmic streaming, also called protoplasmic streaming and cyclosis, is the flow of the cytoplasm inside the cell, driven by forces from the cytoskeleton. It is likely that its function is, at least in part, to speed up the transport of mol ...
(the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as
Cyclosis Cytoplasmic streaming, also called protoplasmic streaming and cyclosis, is the flow of the cytoplasm inside the cell, driven by forces from the cytoskeleton. It is likely that its function is, at least in part, to speed up the transport of mol ...
. It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells.)


See also

* Chemical evolution *
Membrane A membrane is a selective barrier; it allows some things to pass through but stops others. Such things may be molecules, ions, or other small particles. Membranes can be generally classified into synthetic membranes and biological membranes. B ...
*
Symplast The symplast of a plant is the inner side of a cell membrane in which water and low-molecular-weight solutes can freely diffuse. Symplast cells have more than one nucleus. ''Symplast'' could also refer to the connection of the inner contents (c ...


References


External links

* {{Authority control Cell biology