Proto-Hmong–Mien () is the reconstructed ancestor of the

Hmong–Mien languages The Hmong–Mien languages (also known as Miao–Yao and rarely as Yangtzean) are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They are spoken in mountainous areas of southern China, including Guizhou, Hunan, Yunn ...

. Lower-level reconstructions include Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic. The date of proto-Hmong-Mien has been estimated to be about 2500 BP by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas. It has been estimated to about 4243 BP by the Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP), however, ASJP is not widely accepted among historical linguists as an adequate method to establish or evaluate relationships between language families.

Reconstructions

Reconstructions of Proto-Hmong–Mien include those of Purnell (1970), Wang & Mao (1995), Ratliff (2010), and Chen (2013), and Ostapirat (2016). Proto-Hmongic (Proto-Miao) has also been reconstructed by Wang (1994), while Proto-Mienic (Proto-Mjuenic; reconstruction excludes Biao Min and Zao Min) has been reconstructed by Luang-Thongkum (1993).

Ratliff (2010)

Martha Ratliff Martha Ratliff is an American linguist and Professor Emerita at Wayne State University. She is a leading specialist in Hmong–Mien languages and also notable for her reconstruction of Proto-Hmong–Mien. Ratliff earned a B.A. in English from ...

(2010) used 11 criterion languages for her reconstruction. #East Hmongic ( Qiandong); Northern vernacular: Yanghao 养蒿, Yanghao Township,

Taijiang County Taijiang County () is a county in eastern Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: ''Qeef Dongb Naif Dol Hmub D ...

Guizhou Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to the ...

#North Hmongic (

Xiangxi Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (; Tujia: Xianxxix bifzivkar befkar zifzifzoux; Miao: Xangdxid tutjadcul maolcul zibzhibzhoud) is an autonomous prefecture of the People's Republic of China. It is located in northwestern Hunan provin ...

); Western vernacular: Jiwei 吉卫, Jiwei Township,

Huayuan County Huayuan County () is a county of Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture. Located on the western margin of the province and the south western Xiangxi, it is immediately adjacent to the borders of G ...

Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi ...

#West Hmongic (

Chuanqiandian Hmong / Mong (; RPA: ''Hmoob,'' ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, ...

White Hmong Hmong / Mong (; RPA: ''Hmoob,'' ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, ...

of Laos and

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...

#West Hmongic (

); Mashan subdialect, Central vernacular: Zongdi 宗地, Zongdi Township,

Ziyun County Ziyun Miao and Buyei Autonomous County (; Bouyei: ) is a county in the southwest of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Anshun Anshun () is a prefecture-level city located in southwestern ...

#West Hmongic (

); Luopohe subdialect: Fuyuan 复员, Fuyuan County,

Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...

#Hmongic; Jiongnai: Changdong Township 长垌,

Jinxiu County Jinxiu (; za, italic=yes, Ginhsiu) is a county of eastern Guangxi, China, located in an area of relatively high concentrations of the Yao people. It is administered as the Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County of Laibin City. Established in 1952, with the ...

, Guangxi #Hmongic; Baiyun Pa-Hng: Baiyun 白云,

Rongshui County Rongshui Miao Autonomous County (; Standard Zhuang: ) is under the administration of Liuzhou, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. The seat of Rongshui County is Rongshui Town. It borders the prefecture-level divisions of Qiandongnan (Guizhou ...

, Guangxi #Mienic;

Mien The Yao people (its majority branch is also known as Mien; ; vi, người Dao) is a government classification for various minorities in China and Vietnam. They are one of the 55 officially recognised ethnic minorities in China and reside in t ...

, Luoxiang vernacular: Luoxiang Township 罗香,

, Guangxi #Mienic; Mun: Lanjin Township 览金,

Lingyun County Lingyun County () is a county in the northwest of Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Baise Baise (; local pronunciation: ), or Bose, is the westernmost prefecture-level city of Guangxi, China bordering Vietnam as well as the ...

, Guangxi #Mienic; Biao Min: Dongshan Yao Township 东山,

Quanzhou County Quanzhou County (; za, Cenzcouh Yen) is a county in the northeast of Guangxi, China, bordering Hunan province to the north and east. It is under the administration of Guilin City. Quanzhou is the biggest county in Guilin both in size and in pop ...

, Guangxi #Mienic; Zao Min: Daping Township 大平,

Liannan County Liannan Yao Autonomous County ( postal: Linnam; ) is located in the north of Guangdong province, China, and is part of Qingyuan prefecture-level city. More than half the population of the county is part of the Yao people The Yao people (its ...

Guangdong Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...

Wang & Mao (1995)

Wang & Mao (1995) base their Proto-Hmong–Mien reconstruction from the following 23 criterion Hmong-Mien languages. # Yanghao 养蒿; Hmu, North (ISO 693-3: ea # Jiwei 吉卫; Qo Xiong, West mr#Xianjin 先进 ( = Dananshan 大南山); Chuanqiandian Miao, 1st lect qd# Shimenkan 石门坎; Diandongbei Miao md# Qingyan 青岩;

Guiyang Miao Guiyang Miao, also known as Guiyang Hmong, is a Miao language of China. It is named after Guiyang County, Guizhou, though not all varieties are spoken there. The endonym is ''Hmong'', a name it shares with the Hmong language. Classification Gui ...

, North uj# Gaopo 高坡;

Huishui Miao Huishui Miao, a.k.a. Huishui Hmong, is a Miao language of China. It is named after Huishui County, Guizhou, though not all varieties are spoken there. The endonym is ''Mhong'', though it shares this with Gejia and it is simply a variant spellin ...

, North mi# Zongdi 宗地;

Mashan Miao Mang, or Mashan Miao also known as Mashan Hmong (麻山 ''máshān''), is a Miao language of China, spoken primarily in Ziyun Miao and Buyei Autonomous County, southwestern Guizhou province, southwest China. The endonym is ''Mang'', similar to o ...

, Central mm# Fuyuan 复员;

Luopohe Miao Luobohe Miao (罗泊河 ''Luóbóhé'' Miao, Luobo River Miao, Luopohe Hmong; Xijia Miao 西家苗), also known as Hmjo or A-Hmyo, is a Miao language of China. Distribution According to Chen Qiguang (2013), there are more than 50,000 ' (Flowery M ...

, 2nd lect ml# Fengxiang 枫香; Chong'anjiang Miao mj# Qibainong 七百弄; Bunu, Dongnu wx# Yaoli 瑶里; Nao Klao, Baonuo wx# Wenjie 文界; Pa-Hng, Sanjiang ha# Changdong 长峒; Jiongnai nu# Duozhu 多祝;

She She most commonly refers to: *She (pronoun), the third person singular, feminine, nominative case pronoun in modern English. She or S.H.E. may also refer to: Literature and films *'' She: A History of Adventure'', an 1887 novel by H. Rider Hagga ...

hx# Jiangdi 江底;

Iu Mien The Iu Mien language ( ium, Iu Mienh, ; zh, 勉語 or ; th, ภาษาอิวเมี่ยน) is the language spoken by the Iu Mien people in China (where they are considered a constituent group of the Yao peoples), Laos, Vietnam, Th ...

, Guangdian um# Xiangjiang 湘江;

, Xiangnan um# Luoxiang 罗香; Luoxiang Mien Ao Biao um# Changping 长坪; Changping Mien a.k.a. Biao Mon um# Liangzi 梁子; Kim Mun ji# Lanjin 览金; Kim Mun ji# Dongshan 东山; Biao Mon, Dongshan mt# Sanjiang 三江; Biao Mon, Shikou a.k.a. Chao Kong Meng mt# Daping 大坪; Dzao Min pn

Phonology

Ratliff (2010)

's 2010 reconstruction contains the following phonemic inventory. *51–54 consonants (including pre-glottalized and pre-nasalized consonants) *9

monophthong A monophthong ( ; , ) is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation. The monophthongs can be contrasted with diphthongs, wh ...

vowels *7 diphthongs *11 nasal rimes The full set of Proto-Hmong–Mien initial consonants is (Ratliff 2010: 31): The 3 medial consonants are *-j-, *-l-, and *-r-. The 6 final stop consonants are *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ. The Proto-Hmong–Mien vowels are (11 total) (Ratliff 2010: 108): Proto-Hmong–Mien has the following syllable structure (Ratliff 2010:10): Ratliff does not reconstruct vowel length for either Proto-Mienic or Proto-Hmong–Mien. Even though Mienic languages usually have vowel length, Ratliff ascribes this to areal features that were borrowed after the breakup of Proto-Mienic. Neighboring languages with vowel length include

Yue Chinese Yue () is a group of similar Sinitic languages spoken in Southern China, particularly in Liangguang (the Guangdong and Guangxi provinces). The name Cantonese is often used for the whole group, but linguists prefer to reserve that name for ...

and Zhuang.

Ostapirat (2016)

Ostapirat (2016) revises various reconstructed Proto-Hmong–Mien consonant initials proposed by Ratliff (2010). He suggests that many proto-initials are in fact

sesquisyllable Primarily in Austroasiatic languages (also known as Mon–Khmer), in a typical word a minor syllable is a reduced (minor) syllable followed by a full tonic or stressed syllable. The minor syllable may be of the form or , with a reduced vowel, as ...

s, in line with Baxter & Sagart's (2014)

Old Chinese Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 ...

reconstruction and Pittayaporn's (2009)

Proto-Tai Proto-Tai is the reconstructed proto-language (common ancestor) of all the Tai languages, including modern Lao, Shan, Tai Lü, Tai Dam, Ahom, Northern Thai, Standard Thai, Bouyei, and Zhuang. The Proto-Tai language is not directly atteste ...

reconstruction. Examples include reconstructing *m.l- and *m.r- where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs *mbl- and *mbr-, respectively. Hmong-Mien presyllables are further discussed in Strecker (2021).
Pre-print version
Ostapirat (2016) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs -j- or -w-. Additionally, Ostapirat revises Ratliff's uvulars (*q-, etc.) as velars (*k-, etc.), and her palatals as either alveolars or palatals.

Vocabulary

Below are some reconstructed words roughly belonging to the semantic domains of agriculture and subsistence (Ratliff 2004; Greenhill et al. 2008; Starling 1998). Terms for domesticated animals and non-rice crops are usually shared with Chinese, while vocabulary relating to hunting, rice crops, and local plants and animals are usually not shared with Chinese. The ethnonym

Hmong Hmong may refer to: * Hmong people, an ethnic group living mainly in Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand * Hmong cuisine * Hmong customs and culture ** Hmong music ** Hmong textile art * Hmong language, a continuum of closely related to ...

is reconstructed as *hmʉŋ^A in Proto-Hmongic by Ratliff (2010), while

is reconstructed as *mjæn^A in Proto-Mienic. In comparison,

William H. Baxter William Hubbard Baxter III (born March 3, 1949) is an American linguistics, linguist specializing in the history of the Chinese language and best known for Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese, his work on the reconstruction on Old Chinese. ...

and

Laurent Sagart Laurent Sagart (; born 1951) is a senior researcher at the Centre de recherches linguistiques sur l'Asie orientale (CRLAO – UMR 8563) unit of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). Biography Born in Paris in 1951, he earned hi ...

(2014) reconstruct the

name of the Mán 蠻 (

Nanman The Man, commonly known as the Nanman or Southern Man (, ''lit. Southern Barbarians''), were ancient indigenous peoples who lived in inland South and Southwest China, mainly around the Yangtze River valley. In ancient Chinese sources, the ter ...

南蠻, or southern foreigners) as *mˤro

External relationships

The Proto-Hmong–Mien language shares many lexical similarities with neighboring language families, including Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai), Austronesian, and Tibeto-Burman (Ratliff 2010).

(2010:233-237) lists the following lexical resemblances between Proto-Hmong–Mien (abbreviated below as PHM) and other language families. Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic are provided if the Proto-Hmong–Mien form is not reconstructed.

Austroasiatic

Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and

Austroasiatic The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...

language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951).

Proto-Austroasiatic Proto-Austroasiatic is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austroasiatic languages. Proto-Mon–Khmer (i.e., all Austroasiatic branches except for Munda) has been reconstructed in Harry L. Shorto's ''Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary'', while a ...

(PAA) reconstructions are from Sidwell & Rau (2015).Sidwell, Paul and Felix Rau (2015). "Austroasiatic Comparative-Historical Reconstruction: An Overview." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). ''The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages''. Leiden: Brill. ;Lexical resemblances with

*PHM *ʔu̯əm 'water' *PHM *ntshjamX 'blood'; PAA *saːm 'to bleed' *PHM *ntju̯əŋH 'tree' *PHM *ʔɲæmX 'to weep, cry' *PHM *pənX 'to shoot' *PHM *tu̯eiX 'tail'; PAA *sntaʔ *PHM *mpeiH 'to dream' *PHM *ʔpu̯ɛŋX 'full'; PAA *biːŋ; *beːɲ *Proto-Hmongic *mbrɔ^D 'ant' *Proto-Mienic *səp^D 'centipede' *PHM *klup 'grasshopper' *PHM *ntshjeiX 'head louse'; PAA *ciːʔ Other Austroasiatic parallels listed by Kosaka (2002:94) are:Kosaka, Ryuichi. 2002.
On the affiliation of Miao-Yao and Kadai: can we posit the Miao-Dai Family?
In ''The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal'', 32: 71-100. *PHM *tshuŋX 'bone'; PAA *cʔaːŋ *PHM *S-phreiX 'head' *PHM *pji̯əuX 'fruit' *PHM *pjɔu 'three' Ostapirat (2018:116-117) lists compares the following basic vocabulary items in Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic.

Proto-Palaungic Proto-Palaungic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Palaungic languages of mainland Southeast Asia.Sidwell, Paul. 2015. The Palaungic Languages: Classification, Reconstruction and Comparative Lexicon'. München: Lincom Europa. Homeland P ...

as reconstructed by Sidwell (2015) has also been reconstructed. Further lexical resemblances between Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic are listed in Hsiu (2017).

Kra-Dai

Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Kra-Dai language families, although the tones often do not correspond (Ratliff 2010).

(abbreviated here as PT) reconstructions are from Pittayaporn (2009). Many of the Proto-Tai forms also have close parallels with

Proto-Austronesian Proto-Austronesian (commonly abbreviated as PAN or PAn) is a proto-language. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify ...

. ;Lexical resemblances with Kra-Dai *Proto-Hmongic *kɛŋ^B 'I, 1.'; PT *kuː^A (strong form), *kaw^A (weak form) *PHM *mu̯ei 'thou, 2.'; PT *mɯŋ^A (strong form), *maɰ^A (weak form) *PHM *təjH 'to die', *dəjH 'to kill'; PT *p.taːj^A 'to die' *PHM *ʔneinX 'this'; PT *naj^C *PHM *m-nɔk 'bird'; PT *C̬.nok^D *PHM *mbrəuX 'fish'; PT *plaː^A *Proto-Hmongic *hmaŋ^C 'wild dog'; PT *ʰmaː^A 'dog' *Proto-Hmongic *ʔlin^A 'monkey'; PT *liːŋ^A Kosaka (2002) lists many lexical resemblances between Kra-Dai and Hmong-Mien languages, and proposes that they form part of a larger ''Miao-Dai'' language family.

Austronesian

Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austronesian language families, some of which are also shared with Kra-Dai and Austroasiatic (Ratliff 2010).

(abbreviated here as PAN) and

Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is by far the largest branch (by current speakers) of the Austronesian language family. Proto-Malayo-Polynesian is ancestral to all Austronesi ...

(abbreviated here as PMP) reconstructions are from Blust (n.d.). ;Lexical resemblances with Austronesian and Kra-Dai *Proto-Hmongic *kɛŋ^B 'I, 1.'; PMP *-ku 'my' *PHM *mu̯ei 'thou, 2.'; PAN *-mu '2nd person' *PHM *mi̯əu 'you (plural), 2.'; PAN *-mu '2nd person' *PHM *təjH 'to die'; PAN *ma-aCay *PHM *dəjH 'to kill'; PAN *pa-aCay *PHM *m-nɔk 'bird'; PMP *manuk ;Lexical resemblances with Austronesian and Austroasiatic *PHM *tu̯eiX 'tail'; PMP *buntut *PHM *pu̯ɛŋX 'full'; PMP *penuq *PHM *pənX 'to shoot'; PMP *panaq *PHM *mpeiH 'to dream'; PAN *Sepi, PMP *hi(m)pi ;Other lexical resemblances with Austronesian *PHM *mlu̯ɛjH 'soft'; PMP *ma-lumu *PHM *dəp 'bite'; PMP *ketep *PHM *klæŋ 'insect, worm, maggot'; PAN *qulej 'maggot' *PHM *tɛmX 'body louse'; PAN *CumeS, PMP *tumah 'clothes louse'

Tibeto-Burman

Ratliff notes that the Hmong-Mien numerals from 4-9 and various culture-related vocabulary have been borrowed from Tibeto-Burman. The

Proto-Tibeto-Burman Proto-Tibeto-Burman (commonly abbreviated PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the Tibeto-Burman languages, that is, the Sino-Tibetan languages, except for Chinese. An initial reconstruction was produced by Paul K. Benedict and since refined b ...

(abbreviated as PTB) forms provided below are from

James Matisoff James Alan Matisoff ( zh, , t=馬蒂索夫, s=马蒂索夫, p=Mǎdìsuǒfū or zh, , t=馬提索夫, s=马提索夫, p=Mǎtísuǒfū; born July 14, 1937) is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a no ...

(2003). ;Lexical borrowings from

Tibeto-Burman The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non- Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people spea ...

*PHM *plei 'four' < PTB *b-ləy (STEDT
2409
*PHM *prja 'five' < PTB *b-ŋa (STEDT
1306
*PHM *kruk 'six' < PTB *d-k-ruk (STEDT
2621
*PHM *dzjuŋH 'seven' *PHM *jat 'eight' < PTB *b-r-gyat ~ *b-g-ryat (STEDT
2259
*PHM *N-ɟuə 'nine' < PTB *d/s-kəw (STEDT
2364
*Proto-Hmongic *hnɛŋ^A and Proto-Mienic *hnu̯ɔi^A 'sun, day' < PTB *s-nəy (STEDT
85
*PHM *hlaH 'moon, month' < PTB *s-la (STEDT
1016
*PHM *hməŋH 'night' (also 'dark') < PTB *s-muːŋ 'dark' (STEDT
522

2465
*PHM *ʔɲam 'sister-in-law' (also 'daughter-in-law') < PTB *nam 'daughter-in-law' (STEDT
2486
*PHM *ʔweiX 'son-in-law' < PTB *krwəy (STEDT
2348
*PHM *hlep 'to slice' < PTB *s-lep (STEDT
2401
*PHM *hmjænX 'footprint, track' < PTB *s-naŋ 'to follow' (STEDT
2488
*Proto-Hmongic *mjæn^B 'horse' < PTB *mraŋ (STEDT
1431
Additionally,

Paul K. Benedict Paul King Benedict (; July 5, 1912 – July 21, 1997) was an American anthropologist, mental health professional, and linguist who specialized in languages of East and Southeast Asia. He is well known for his 1942 proposal of the Austro-Tai ...

(1987)Benedict, Paul K. 1987.
Early MY/TB Loan Relationships
" In Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 10, no. 2: 12-21. notes that Proto-Hmong–Mien contains loanwords from an unknown Tibeto-Burman language or branch, which Benedict refers to as ''Donor Miao-Yao''. Some numerals that Benedict (1987) reconstructed for ''Proto-Donor Miao-Yao'' are given below. * *pli^A 'four' * *pra^A 'five' * *truk 'six' * *znis 'seven' * *hryat 'eight' * *t-gu^A 'nine' * *gup 'ten'

Guillaume Jacques Guillaume Jacques (, b. 1979) is a French linguist who specializes in the study of Sino-Tibetan languages: Old Chinese, Tangut, Tibetan, Gyalrongic and Kiranti languages. He also performs research on the Algonquian and Siouan language families ...

(2021) notes that there are Tibeto-Burman parallels for various Hmong-Mien words that are found specifically in rGyalrongic and neighboring

Qiangic languages Qiangic (''Ch'iang, Kyang, Tsiang'', Chinese: 羌語支, "''Qiang'' language group"; formerly known as Dzorgaic) is a group of related languages within the Sino-Tibetan language family. They are spoken mainly in Southwest China, including Sichua ...

. These include the words for 'snow' (cf. Jiangdi Mien bwan⁵), 'scold' (Proto-Hmongic *qe C), 'walnut' (Proto-Hmongic *qlow C), and 'bamboo' (Proto-Hmong-Mien *hləwX).

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

*Aumann, Greg; Sidwell, Paul. (2004)
"Subgrouping of Mienic Languages: Some Observations"
In ''Papers from the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society'' (pp. 13–27). * * Chen Qiguang ��其光(2013). ''Miao and Yao language'' ��瑶语文 Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House ��族出版社 * * * * Miyake, Marc. 2012
Were there Hmong in the Tangut Empire?
* * (revision o
paper
presented at IsCLL-14, Taipei, Taiwan) * * Manuscript. * * (multiple entries) *Solnit, David B. (1996)
"Some evidence from Biao Min on the initials of Proto-Mienic (Yao) and Proto-Hmong-Mien (Miao-Yao)"
''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 19''(1), 1-18. * Wang Fushi 王辅世, Mao Zongwu 毛宗武. 1995. ''Miao-Yao yu guyin gouni'' 苗瑤语古音构拟. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. {{DEFAULTSORT:Proto-Hmong-Mien Language Hmong–Mien languages Hmong-Mien

Reconstructions

Ratliff (2010)

Wang & Mao (1995)

Phonology

Ratliff (2010)

Ostapirat (2016)

Vocabulary

External relationships

Austroasiatic

Kra-Dai

Austronesian

Tibeto-Burman

See also

Notes

References

Citations

Sources