The Post-Mauryan coinage of Gandhara refers to the period of coinage production in

Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Val ...

, following the breakup of the

Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire, or the Mauryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in the Indian subcontinent based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until ...

(321-185 BCE). When Mauryan central power disappeared, several small independent entities were formed, which started to strike their own coins, defining a period of Post-Mauryan coinage that ends with the rise of the

Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...

in the 4th century CE. This phenomenon was particularly precocious and significant in the area of

in the northwest, and more particularly in the city of

Taxila Taxila or Takshashila (; sa, तक्षशिला; pi, ; , ; , ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan. Located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District, it lies approximately northwest of the Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area a ...

,The Coins Of India, by Brown, C.J. p.13-20
/ref> in modern-day

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...

Technology

Punch-marked coinage

These political changes were accompanied by technological changes in coin production techniques. Before the collapse of the Maurya Empire, the main type of coinage was

punch-marked coins Punch-marked coins, also known as ''Aahat coins'', are a type of early coinage of India, dating to between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BC. It was of irregular shape. History The study of the relative chronology of these coins has successfu ...

. After manufacturing a sheet of silver or silver alloys, coins were cut out to the proper weight, and then impressed by small punch-dies. Typically from 5 to 10 punch dies could be impressed on one coin.

Cast die-struck coinage

The types of coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins. Each individual coins was first cast by pouring a molten metal, usually copper or silver, into a cavity formed by two molds. These were then usually die-struck while still hot, first on just one side, and then on the two sides at a later period. The coin devices are Indian, but it is thought that this coin technology was introduced from the West, possibly from the neighboring

Greco-Bactrian The Bactrian Kingdom, known to historians as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom or simply Greco-Bactria, was a Hellenistic-era Greek state, and along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world in Central Asia and the India ...

kingdom.

Coin types

Single-die coins

The most ancient of the coins are those that were die-cast on one side only, the other side remaining blank. They seem to start as early 220 BCE, that is, already in the last decades of the Maurya Empire. Some of these coins were created before the

Indo-Greek The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent ( ...

invasions (dated to circa 185 BCE, start of the

Yavana era The Yavana Era, or Yona (Prakrit: ''Yoṇaṇa vaṣaye'') was a computational era used in the Indian subcontinent from the 2nd century BCE for several centuries thereafter, probably starting in 174 BCE.Des Indo-Grecs aux Sassanides: données pour ...

), while most of the others were created later. These coins incorporate a number of symbols, in a way which is very reminiscent of the prievous punch-marked coins, except that this time the technology used was cast single die-struck coinage.Ancient Indian Coinage, Rekha Jain, D.K.Printworld Ltd, p.114

Single-die coins before Indo-Greek invasions (220-185 BCE)

File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 220-185 BC Column and Hill.jpg, Taxila single-die local coinage. Column and arched-hill symbol (220-185 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage) Circa 220-185 BC Karshapana.jpg, Taxila single-die local coinage. Pile of stones, hill, river and

Swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly in various Eurasian, as well as some African and American cultures, now also widely recognized for its appropriation by the Nazi Party and by neo-Nazis. I ...

(220-185 BCE). Taxila (local coinage). Circa 220-185 BC. Hill and River.jpg, Taxila single-dye coin. Pile of stones, hill, river and unknown symbols (220-185 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 220-185 BC.jpg, Taxila local single-die coinage (220-185 BCE).

Single-die coins after the Indo-Greek invasions (185 BCE)

The year 185 BCE is the approximate date the

Greco-Bactrians The Bactrian Kingdom, known to historians as the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom or simply Greco-Bactria, was a Hellenistic-era Greek state, and along with the Indo-Greek Kingdom, the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world in Central Asia and the Indi ...

invaded India. This date marks an evolution in the design of single-die cast coins, as deities and realistic animals were introduced. At the same time coinage technology also evolved, as double-die coins (engraved on both sides, obverse and reverse) started to appear. The archaeological excavations of coins have shown that these coins, as well as the new double die coins, were contemporary with those of the

Indo-Greeks The Indo-Greek Kingdom, or Graeco-Indian Kingdom, also known historically as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya), was a Hellenistic period, Hellenistic-era Ancient Greece, Greek kingdom covering various parts of Afghanistan and the northwestern r ...

. According to

Osmund Bopearachchi Osmund Bopearachchi (born 1949) is a Sri Lankan historian and numismatist who has specialized notably standardized the coinage of the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms. He is currently Emeritus Director of the CNRS at the École Normale Sup ...

these coins, and particularly those depicting the goddess

Lakshmi Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with '' Maya'' ("Illusion"). A ...

, were probably minted by Demetrius I following his invasion of Gandhara.

, 2016
Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence
/ref> File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC.Hill and Tree.jpg, Taxila coin with hill and tree-in-railing (185-168 BCE). File:Taxila single dye coin.jpg, Taxila single-die coin with

and arched-hill symbol (185-160 BCE). File:Taxila single die coin with bull.jpg, Taxila single die coin with bull and arched-hill symbol (185-168 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC Karshapana.jpg, Taxila coin (185-168 BCE). File:TaxilaCoin200-100BCE.JPG, Taxila coin. File:TaxilaCoinBM.JPG, Taxila coin.

Double-die coins (185 BCE onward)

Triratna on Taxila coin 185-168 BCE detail

Progressively, after 185 BCE and the Greek invasion, coins were cast on both sides. These coins are generally anonymous, and can carry

Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as 'lath' o ...

Kharoshthi The Kharoṣṭhī script, also spelled Kharoshthi (Kharosthi: ), was an ancient Indo-Iranian script used by various Aryan peoples in north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely around present-day northern Pakistan and e ...

legends. These coins have quite specific types, depending mainly on the region where they were struck. Coins with a lion device are mainly known from

, while coins with other symbols such as the

or the Bodhi tree are attributed to the region of

. These coins were cast during the rule of Indo-Greek kings

Pantaleon Pantaleon, also known as Panteleimon, (Greek: ) was a Greek king who reigned some time between 190–180 BC in Bactria and India. He was a younger contemporary or successor of the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius, and is sometimes believed to ha ...

and

Agathocles Agathocles ( Greek: ) is a Greek name, the most famous of which is Agathocles of Syracuse, the tyrant of Syracuse. The name is derived from , ''agathos'', i.e. "good" and , ''kleos'', i.e. "glory". Other personalities named Agathocles: *Agathocles ...

in the area of

, and they are generally contemporary with those of Indo-Greek rulers.

Symbolic designs

File:Taxila coin with wheel and Buddhist symbols.jpg, Taxila coin with wheel and Buddhist symbols. (185-160 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage) Symbols.jpg, Taxila coin (circa 180 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage) Circa 185-168 BC Karshapana.jpg, Taxila coin (circa 180 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC Hill-hiranyasame type.jpg, Taxila coin with hill, flame palmette plant and ''hirañasame'' "The Golden Hermitage" in

(185-168 BCE).Taxila, Amanda Gosh, p.835, Nos. 46-48
/ref> File:Taxila (local coinage) Circa 180-160 BC Half Karshapana.jpg, Taxila coin, with hill, empty cross and

palmette The palmette is a motif in decorative art which, in its most characteristic expression, resembles the fan-shaped leaves of a palm tree. It has a far-reaching history, originating in ancient Egypt with a subsequent development through the art ...

(180-160 BCE).

Animal designs

Indo-Greek influence in the portrayal of the animal has been claimed, especially regarding the horses and lions of the Gandharan coins, which are said to be "distinctly Greek in style". The horse is generally shown with the specific symbol of a star. This design can be found in Greek coinage, such as that of

Ophellas Ophellas or Ophelas (fl. c. 350 – 308 BC) was an Ancient Macedonian soldier and politician. Born in Pella in Macedonia, he was a member of the expeditionary army of Alexander the Great in Asia, and later acted as Ptolemaic governor of Cyre ...

, a former officer of Alexander, as governor in Cyrene,

North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...

. File:Taxila Post Mauryan local coinage Circa 185-168 BC.jpg, Taxila coin, elephant with arched-hill symbol (185-168 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC. Elephant and Horse.jpg, Taxila coin with elephant and horse under star (185-168 BCE). File:Taxila coin brown.jpg, Taxila double-dye coin (185-168 BCE). File:Taxila coin.jpg, Taxila coin with elephant and lion (185-168 BCE) File:Taxila coin with horse and facing elephant.jpg, Taxila coin with horse and facing elephant (185-160 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC Elephant and Horse.jpg, Taxila coin with elephant and horse (185-168 BCE) File:Taxila (local coinage). 185-168 BC. Elephant Plant and Horse.jpg,

Pushkalavati Pushkalavati ( ps, پشکلاوتي; Urdu: ; Sanskrit: ; Prākrit: ; grc, Πευκελαῶτις ) or Pushkaravati ( Sanskrit: ; Pāli: ), and later Shaikhan Dheri ( ps, شېخان ډېرۍ; ur, ), was the capital of the Gandhara kingd ...

coin with elephant and horse (185-168 BCE) File:Taxila gold coin 185-170 BC.jpg, Taxila gold coin (185-170 BCE).

Anthropomorphic or textual designs

File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC.jpg, Demon with arched-hill symbol on top of the head, plant. (185-160 BCE). File:Taxila (local coinage). Circa 185-168 BC Demon and plant.jpg, Taxila coin with demon and plant. (185-168 BCE). File:Taxila local coinage. Circa 185-168 BC. A (20mm, 3.94 g, 6h). Negamaa in Brahmi Reverse Dojaka in Brahmi.jpg, Taxila coin. Obverse: Negamā in Brahmi. Reverse Dojaka in

. (185-168 BC) Later, humped or elephant images are known from

Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and setting of the great epic Ramayana. Ayodhy ...

Kausambi Kosambi ( Pali) or Kaushambi ( Sanskrit) was an important city in ancient India. It was the capital of the Vatsa kingdom, one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It was located on the Yamuna River about southwest of its confluence with the Ganges ...

, Panchala and

Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...

. The coins of Ayodhia generally have a humped bull on the reverse, while the coins of

display a tree with railing.

Indian-standard coinage of the Greeks (185 BCE onward)

The Indo-Greeks, following their invasion of the Indian subcontinent circa 185 BCE, in turn started to mint their own coins in the Indian standard (Indian weight, square shape, and less often round shape) with bilingual inscriptions, from the reign of

(190-180 BCE).

Symbolism

In addition to their own

Attic An attic (sometimes referred to as a ''loft'') is a space found directly below the pitched roof of a house or other building; an attic may also be called a ''sky parlor'' or a garret. Because attics fill the space between the ceiling of the ...

coins, Greek kings thus started to issue bilingual Greek-

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

coins in the Indian standard, often taking over numerous symbols of the Post-Mauryan Gandhara coins, such as the arched-hill symbol and the tree-in-railing or Goddess

at the beginning, and depictions of the bull and elephant later.

Legends

Several coins of king

use the

legend ''Akathukreyasa'' "

" on the obverse, and ''Hirañasame'' on the reverse (as one of the known coins of Taxila above). ''Hirañasame'' would mean "The Golden Hermitage", an area of

(preferred interpretation), or if read Hitajasame'' would mean "Good-fame possessing", a direct translation of "Agathokles"Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Bopearachchi, p.176 File:Pantaleon with Lakshmi and Lion.jpg, Coinage of

with dancing woman (

?) and lion. File:Agatocles Chaitya.jpg, Coin of

. Obv Six-arched hill symbol with star on top,

legend ''Akathukreyasa'' "

". Rev Tree-in-railing and legend ''Hirañasame''. File:Bilingual Coin of Agathocles of Bactria.jpg, Coin of

. Obv Stupa surmounted by a star,

legend ''Akathukreyasa'' "

". Rev vegetal symbol and ''hirañasame'' (185-168 BCE). File:AgathoklesCoinage.jpg, Indian coinage of

, with Buddhist lion and

. File:Coin of the Bactrian King Agathokles.jpg, Coin of

with

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

deities:

Vasudeva According to Hindu scriptures, Vasudeva (Sanskrit: वसुदेव, IAST: ''Vasudeva''), also called Anakadundubhi, (''anakas'' and ''dundubhis'' both refer to ''drums'', after the musicians who played these instruments at the time of his ...

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...

and

Balarama Balarama ( Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Bala ...

- Samkarshana (found at

Ai-Khanoum Ai-Khanoum (, meaning ''Lady Moon''; uz, Oyxonim) is the archaeological site of a Hellenistic city in Takhar Province, Afghanistan. The city, whose original name is unknown, was probably founded by an early ruler of the Seleucid Empire and se ...

). File:Demetrius I MET coin.jpg, Coin of Demetrius I.

Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...

Normalization

Later on, from the second half of the reign of Apollodotus I (ruled 180-160 BCE), legends would become standardized, with simply the King's name and attribute in Greek on the obverse and Kharoshthi

on the reverse. The usage of Indian symbols would become much more restrained, generally limited to the illustration of the elephant and the

zebu The zebu (; ''Bos indicus'' or ''Bos taurus indicus''), sometimes known in the plural as indicine cattle or humped cattle, is a species or subspecies of domestic cattle originating in the Indian sub-continent. Zebu are characterised by a fatty h ...

bull. There are two major exceptions however:

Menander I Menander I Soter ( grc, Μένανδρος Σωτήρ, Ménandros Sōtḗr, Menander the Saviour; pi, मिलिन्दो, Milinda), was a Greco-Bactrian and later Indo-Greek King (reigned c.165/155Bopearachchi (1998) and (1991), respectivel ...

and

Menander II Menander II Dikaios (Greek: ; epithet means "the Just") may have been an Indo-Greek King who ruled in the areas of Arachosia and Gandhara in the north of modern Pakistan. However, since he is entirely known through his coins, this may have just ...

used the Indian Wheel of the Law on some of their coins, suggesting an affiliation with

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

, which is also described in literary sources. However the usage of bilingualism would endure, at first coexisting with

-standard coins, and later becoming exclusive. The last Indo-Greek kings even went as far as issuing some Prakrit-only coinage. The period of Indo-Greek coinage in northwestern India would last until the beginning of our era. File:Apollodotus zebu with nandipada hump.jpg, Coin of Apollodotus I (180-160 BCE). File:Menander with elephant.jpg,

(155-130 BCE) coin with elephant. File:Menander II with wheel.jpg, Silver Drachm of

(95-80 BCE) with

Zeus Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label= genitive Boeotian Aeolic and Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label= genitive el, Δίας, ''Días'' () is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek relig ...

and

Nike Nike often refers to: * Nike (mythology), a Greek goddess who personifies victory * Nike, Inc., a major American producer of athletic shoes, apparel, and sports equipment Nike may also refer to: People * Nike (name), a surname and feminine give ...

handing a victory wreath to a Wheel of the LawBopearachchi 4A and note 4; Bopearachchi & Rahman -; SNG ANS Indo-Greek coinage in Gandhara would continue for nearly two centuries, until it was taken over by the coinage of the

Indo-Scythians Indo-Scythians (also called Indo-Sakas) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples of Scythian origin who migrated from Central Asia southward into modern day Pakistan and Northwestern India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th centu ...

, the

Indo-Parthians The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was a Parthian kingdom founded by Gondophares, and active from 19 CE to c. 226 CE. At their zenith, they ruled an area covering parts of eastern Iran, various parts of Afghanistan and the northwest regions of the India ...

and the

Yuezhi The Yuezhi (;) were an ancient people first described in Chinese histories as nomadic pastoralists living in an arid grassland area in the western part of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC. After a major defeat ...

(future

Kushans The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, ...

References

{{Historic Indian currency and coinage Coins of India

Technology

Punch-marked coinage

Cast die-struck coinage

Coin types

Single-die coins

Single-die coins before Indo-Greek invasions (220-185 BCE)

Single-die coins after the Indo-Greek invasions (185 BCE)

Double-die coins (185 BCE onward)

Symbolic designs

Animal designs

Anthropomorphic or textual designs

Indian-standard coinage of the Greeks (185 BCE onward)

Symbolism

Legends

Normalization

See also

References