The Portuguese
Empire

Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as
the Portuguese Overseas (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese
Colonial
Empire

Empire (Império Colonial Português), was one of the largest
and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial
empire of the Renaissance. It existed for almost six centuries from
the capture of
Ceuta

Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of
Portuguese Macau
.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_(1976-1999).svg.png)
Portuguese Macau to
China

China in 1999.
The first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of
the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would
eventually expand across the globe. Portuguese sailors began exploring
the coast of
Africa

Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418–19, using
recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology
such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the
source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488,
Bartolomeu Dias
.JPG/440px-Bartolomeu_Dias,_South_Africa_House_(cut).JPG)
Bartolomeu Dias rounded
the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498,
Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama reached India. In
1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's secret
design,
Pedro Álvares Cabral

Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American
coast.
Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore
the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories
as they went. By 1571, a string of naval outposts connected
Lisbon

Lisbon to
Nagasaki

Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East,
India

India and South
Asia. This commercial network and the colonial trade had a substantial
positive impact on Portuguese economic growth (1500-1800), when it
accounted for about a fifth of Portugal's per capita income.
When Philip II of Spain, I of Portugal, inherited the Portuguese crown
in 1580, this began a 60-year union between
Spain

Spain and
Portugal

Portugal that
has since been given the historiographic term of the Iberian Union.
Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council
of
Portugal

Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King
of
Spain

Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the
subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain:
the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population,
Portugal

Portugal was unable to effectively defend its overstretched network of
trading posts, and the empire began a long and gradual decline.
Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the second era
until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the
Americas
.svg/400px-Americas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Americas during the early 19th century, it broke away in 1822.
The third era represents the final stage of Portuguese colonialism
after the independence of Brazil in the 1820s. By then, the colonial
possessions had been reduced to forts and plantations along the
African coastline (expanded inland during the
Scramble for Africa

Scramble for Africa in
the late 19th century), Portuguese Timor, and enclaves in India
(Portuguese India) and
China

China (Portuguese Macau). The 1890 British
Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa.
Under António Salazar, the Second Portuguese
Republic

Republic made some
ill-fated attempts to cling on to its last remaining colonies. Under
the ideology of Pluricontinentalism, the regime renamed its colonies
"overseas provinces" while retaining the system of forced labour, from
which only a small indigenous elite was normally exempt. In 1961, Goa
was annexed by
India

India and
Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá

Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá was
annexed by Dahomey (now Benin). The
Portuguese Colonial War

Portuguese Colonial War in Africa
lasted until the final overthrow of the regime in 1974. The so-called
Carnation Revolution

Carnation Revolution lead to the hasty decolonization of Portuguese
Africa

Africa and the annexation of
Portuguese Timor

Portuguese Timor by Indonesia.
Decolonization prompted the exodus of nearly all the Portuguese
colonial settlers and many mixed-race people from the colonies.
Portuguese Macau
.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Government_of_Portuguese_Macau_(1976-1999).svg.png)
Portuguese Macau was returned to
China

China in 1999. The only overseas
possessions to remain under Portuguese rule, the
Azores
.jpg/600px-Açores_2010-07-19_(5047589237).jpg)
Azores and Madeira,
both had overwhelmingly Portuguese populations, and their
constitutional status was subsequently changed from "overseas
provinces" to "autonomous regions".
Contents
1 Background (1139–1415)
2 First era (1415–1663)
2.1 Initial African coastline excursions
2.2
Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
2.3 Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean
2.4 Trade with Maritime Asia,
Africa

Africa and the Indian Ocean
2.4.1 Goa,
Malacca

Malacca and Southeast Asia
2.4.2
China

China and Japan
2.4.3 Spice Islands (Moluccas) and Treaty of Zaragoza
2.4.4 South Asia, Persian Gulf and Red Sea
2.4.5 Sub-Saharan Africa
2.4.6 Missionary expeditions
2.5 Colonization efforts in the Americas
2.5.1 Canada
2.5.2 Brazil
2.6 Iberian Union, Protestant rivalry, and colonial stasis
(1580–1663)
3 Second era (1663–1825)
3.1
Minas Gerais

Minas Gerais and the Gold Industry
3.2 Pombaline and post-Pombaline Brazil
3.3 Brazilian Independence
4 Third era (1822–1999)
4.1
British Ultimatum

British Ultimatum and end of Portuguese monarchy (1890–1910)
4.2 World War I
4.3 Turmoil and decolonization (1951–1999)
5 Legacy
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Background (1139–1415)[edit]
Main article:
History of Portugal

History of Portugal (1139–1415)
The Conquest of Ceuta, in 1415, was led by Henry the Navigator, and
initiated the Portuguese Empire.
The origin of the
Kingdom of Portugal
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Portugal_(1830).svg.png)
Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the
gradual reconquest of the
Iberian peninsula

Iberian peninsula from the Moors.[1] After
establishing itself as a separate kingdom in 1139,
Portugal

Portugal completed
its reconquest of Moorish territory by reaching
Algarve

Algarve in 1249, but
its independence continued to be threatened by neighbouring Castile
until the signing of the
Treaty of Ayllón in 1411.[2]
Free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought
by other European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and
towards a military expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa.[3]
There were several probable motives for their first attack, on the
Marinid Sultanate (in present-day Morocco). It offered the opportunity
to continue the Christian crusade against Islam; to the military
class, it promised glory on the battlefield and the spoils of war;[4]
and finally, it was also a chance to expand Portuguese trade and to
address Portugal's economic decline.[3]
In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North
African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the
terminal ports of the trans-Saharan gold and slave trades. The
conquest was a military success, and marked one of the first steps in
Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula,[5] but it proved
costly to defend against the Muslim forces that soon besieged it. The
Portuguese were unable to use it as a base for further expansion into
the hinterland,[6] and the trans-Saharan caravans merely shifted their
routes to bypass
Ceuta

Ceuta and/or used alternative Muslim ports.[7]
First era (1415–1663)[edit]
Part of a series on the
History of Portugal
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Restoration War
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Transfer of Court
Liberal Wars
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1910 Revolution
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Portugal during World War I
1926 coup d'état
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Portugal

Portugal portal
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Main articles:
History of Portugal

History of Portugal (1415–1578) and Portuguese
discoveries
Although
Ceuta

Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the
decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic
African coast.[7] A key supporter of this policy was
Infante
.svg/240px-Princely_hat_(shaded).svg.png)
Infante Dom Henry
the Navigator, who had been involved in the capture of Ceuta, and who
took the lead role in promoting and financing Portuguese maritime
exploration until his death in 1460.[8] At the time, Europeans did not
know what lay beyond
Cape Bojador

Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wished
to know how far the Muslim territories in
Africa

Africa extended, and whether
it was possible to reach
Asia

Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the
lucrative spice trade and perhaps to join forces with the fabled
Christian kingdom of
Prester John

Prester John that was rumoured to exist somewhere
in the "Indies".[4][9] Under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic
islands of
Madeira

Madeira (1419) and
Azores
.jpg/600px-Açores_2010-07-19_(5047589237).jpg)
Azores (1427) were reached and started
to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal.[10]
Initial African coastline excursions[edit]
Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to
return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded
by one of
Infante
.svg/240px-Princely_hat_(shaded).svg.png)
Infante Henry's captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological
barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the
coast.[11] In 1443
Infante
.svg/240px-Princely_hat_(shaded).svg.png)
Infante Dom Pedro, Henry's brother and by then
regent of the Kingdom, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war and
trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be
enforced by the papal bulls
Dum Diversas

Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex
(1455), granting
Portugal

Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered
lands.[12] A major advance that accelerated this project was the
introduction of the caravel in the mid-15th century, a ship that could
be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in
Europe

Europe at
the time.[13] Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese
navigators reached ever more southerly latitudes, advancing at an
average rate of one degree a year.[14]
Senegal

Senegal and Cape Verde
Peninsula were reached in 1445.[15]
Map of Western
Africa

Africa by Lázaro Luis (1563). The large castle in West
Africa

Africa represents the
São Jorge da Mina

São Jorge da Mina (
Elmina

Elmina castle).
The first feitoria trade post overseas was established in 1445 on the
island of Arguin, off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim
traders and monopolize the business in the routes travelled in North
Africa. In 1446,
Álvaro Fernandes
_-_Geographicus_-_WestAfrica2-bellin-1765.jpg/400px-1865_Bellin_Sea_Chart_of_Western_Africa_(_Senegal,_Gambia,_Guinea,_etc.)_-_Geographicus_-_WestAfrica2-bellin-1765.jpg)
Álvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as
present-day Sierra Leone, and the
Gulf of Guinea
.jpg/500px-Gulf_of_Guinea_(English).jpg)
Gulf of Guinea was reached in the
1460s.[16] The
Cape Verde

Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1456 and settled
in 1462.
Expansion of sugarcane in
Madeira

Madeira started in 1455, using advisers from
Sicily

Sicily and (largely) Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt" rare
in Europe. Already cultivated in Algarve, the accessibility of Madeira
attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian
monopolies. Slaves were used, and the proportion of imported slaves in
Madeira

Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th century.[17]
By 1480
Antwerp

Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the
Madeira

Madeira sugar
trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. By
the 1490s
Madeira

Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar.[18] The
success of sugar merchants such as
Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel
the investment in future travels.[19]
In 1469, after prince Henry's death and as a result of meagre returns
of the African explorations, King Afonso V granted the monopoly of
trade in part of the
Gulf of Guinea
.jpg/500px-Gulf_of_Guinea_(English).jpg)
Gulf of Guinea to merchant Fernão Gomes.[20]
Gomes, who had to explore 100 miles (160 km) of the coast each
year for five years, discovered the islands of the Gulf of Guinea,
including
São Tomé and Príncipe

São Tomé and Príncipe and found a thriving alluvial gold
trade among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the
port then named Mina (the mine), where he established a trading
post.[21] Trade between
Elmina

Elmina and
Portugal

Portugal grew throughout a decade.
In 1481, the recently crowned João II decided to build São Jorge da
Mina in order to ensure the protection of this trade, which was held
again as a royal monopoly. The
Equator

Equator was crossed by navigators
sponsored by
Fernão Gomes in 1473 and the
Congo River

Congo River by Diogo Cão
in 1482. It was during this expedition that the Portuguese first
encountered the Kingdom of Kongo, with which it soon developed a
rapport.[22] During his 1485–86 expedition, Cão continued to Cape
Cross, in present-day Namibia, near the Tropic of Capricorn.[23]
Portuguese possessions in
Morocco

Morocco (1415-1769)
In 1488,
Bartolomeu Dias
.JPG/440px-Bartolomeu_Dias,_South_Africa_House_(cut).JPG)
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the
Cape of Good Hope
.JPG/700px-Cape_of_Good_Hope_(Zaian_2008).JPG)
Cape of Good Hope on the southern
tip of Africa, proving false the view that had existed since Ptolemy
that the Indian Ocean was land-locked. Simultaneously Pêro da
Covilhã, traveling secretly overland, had reached Ethiopia,
suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be
forthcoming.[24]
As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind
a series of padrões, stone crosses engraved with the Portuguese coat
of arms marking their claims,[25] and built forts and trading posts.
From these bases, they engaged profitably in the slave and gold
trades.
Portugal

Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the African seaborne
slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves annually.
Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is
estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the
population.[26]
Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)[edit]
Main article: Treaty of Tordesillas
The 1494
Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty of Tordesillas meridian divided the world between the
crowns of
Portugal

Portugal and of Castile.
In 1492 Christopher Columbus's after-discovery for
Spain

Spain of the New
World, which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the
Spanish and Portuguese.[27] These were eventually settled by the
Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of
Europe

Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Portuguese and the Spanish
along a north-south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles
(1,560 km), west of the
Cape Verde

Cape Verde islands.[28] However, as it
was not possible at the time to correctly measure longitude, the exact
boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.[29]
The completion of these negotiations with
Spain

Spain is one of several
reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the
Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope,
though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact
taking place in secret during this time.[30][31] Whether or not this
was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route
to
Asia

Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded by
Vasco da Gama.[32]
Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean[edit]
Main article:
Portuguese India

Portuguese India Armadas
Vasco da Gama's departure to India, in 1497
The squadron of
Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama left
Portugal

Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape
and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was
brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching
Calicut (the capital of the native kingdom ruled by Zamorins (This
city also known as Kozhikode) in south-western
India

India in May 1498.[33]
The second voyage to
India

India was dispatched in 1500 under Pedro Álvares
Cabral. While following the same south-westerly route as Gama across
the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This
was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that
the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on
their side of the Tordesillas line.[34] Cabral recommended to the
Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow up voyages
were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant in
pau-brasil, or brazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but
the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being
Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India.[35] In 1502, to enforce
its trade monopoly over a wide area of the Indian Ocean, the
Portuguese
Empire

Empire created the cartaz licensing system, granting
merchant ships protection against pirates and rival states.[36]
Portuguese discoveries

Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and
dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes (blue)
Profiting from the rivalry between the ruler of
Kochi

Kochi and the Zamorin
of Calicut, the Portuguese were well-received and seen as allies, as
they obtained a permit to build the fort Immanuel (Fort Kochi) and a
trading post that were the first European settlement in India. They
established a trading center at Tangasseri,
Quilon

Quilon (Coulão, Kollam)
city in (1503) in 1502, which became the centre of trade in
pepper,[37] and after founding manufactories at
Cochin

Cochin (Cochim, Kochi)
and Cannanore (Canonor, Kannur), built a factory at
Quilon

Quilon in 1503. In
1505 King
Manuel I of Portugal

Manuel I of Portugal appointed
Francisco de Almeida
_-_Autor_desconhecido.png/440px-Retrato_de_D._Francisco_de_Almeida_(após_1545)_-_Autor_desconhecido.png)
Francisco de Almeida first
Viceroy

Viceroy of Portuguese India, establishing the Portuguese government in
the east. That year the Portuguese also conquered Kannur, where they
founded St. Angelo Fort, and
Lourenço de Almeida arrived in Ceylon
(modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of cinnamon.[38]
Although
Cankili I

Cankili I of
Jaffna

Jaffna initially resisted contact with them, the
Jaffna

Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials soon
after for their resistance to missionary activities as well as
logistical reasons due to its proximity with
Trincomalee

Trincomalee harbour among
other reasons.[39] In the same year, Manuel I ordered Almeida to
fortify the Portuguese fortresses in Kerala and within eastern Africa,
as well as probe into the prospects of building forts in Sri Lanka and
Malacca

Malacca in response to growing hostilities with Muslims within those
regions and threats from the
Mamluk

Mamluk sultan.[40]
The
Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai

Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai carrack exemplified the might and
the force of the Portuguese Armada.
16th century Portuguese illustration from the Códice Casanatense,
depicting a Portuguese nobleman with his retinue in India
A Portuguese fleet under the command of
Tristão da Cunha

Tristão da Cunha and Afonso
de Albuquerque conquered
Socotra

Socotra at the entrance of the
Red Sea

Red Sea in
1506 and
Muscat

Muscat in 1507. Having failed to conquer Ormuz, they instead
followed a strategy intended to close off commerce to and from the
Indian Ocean.[41]
Madagascar

Madagascar was partly explored by Cunha, and
Mauritius

Mauritius was discovered by Cunha whilst possibly being accompanied by
Albuquerque.[42] After the capture of Socotra, Cunha and Albuquerque
operated separately. While Cunha traveled
India

India and
Portugal

Portugal for
trading purposes, Albuquerque went to
India

India to take over as governor
after Almeida's three-year term ended. Almeida refused to turn over
power and soon placed Albuquerque under house arrest, where he
remained until 1509.[43]
Although requested by Manuel I to further explore interests in Malacca
and Sri Lanka, Almeida instead focused on western India, in particular
the
Sultanate of Gujarat

Sultanate of Gujarat due to his suspicions of traders from the
region possessing more power. The Mamlûk Sultanate sultan Al-Ashraf
Qansuh al-Ghawri along with the Gujarati sultanate attacked Portuguese
forces in the harbor of Chaul, resulting in the death of Almeida's
son. In retaliation, the Portuguese fought and destroyed the Mamluks
and Gujarati fleets in the sea Battle of Diu in 1509.[44]
Along with Almeida's initial attempts, Manuel I and his council in
Lisbon

Lisbon had tried to distribute power in the Indian Ocean, creating
three areas of jurisdiction: Albuquerque was sent to the Red Sea,
Diogo Lopes de Sequeira

Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to South-east Asia, seeking an agreement with
the Sultan of Malacca, and Jorge de Aguiar followed by Duarte de Lemos
were sent to the area between the
Cape of Good Hope
.JPG/700px-Cape_of_Good_Hope_(Zaian_2008).JPG)
Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat.[45]
However, such posts were centralized by
Afonso de Albuquerque
_-_Autor_desconhecido.png/440px-Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_(após_1545)_-_Autor_desconhecido.png)
Afonso de Albuquerque after
his succession and remained so in subsequent ruling.[46]
Trade with Maritime Asia,
Africa

Africa and the Indian Ocean[edit]
Main articles: History of Macau, History of Goa, and Portuguese
Malacca
Goa,
Malacca

Malacca and Southeast Asia[edit]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese
Empire

Empire of the East, or
Estado da Índia

Estado da Índia ("State of India"), with its capital in Goa, included
possessions (as subjected areas with a certain degree of autonomy) in
all the Asian sub-continents, East Africa, and Pacific.
By the end of 1509, Albuquerque became viceroy of the Portuguese
India. In contrast to Almeida, Albuquerque was more concerned with
strengthening the navy,[47] as well as being more compliant with the
interests of the kingdom.[48] His first objective was to conquer Goa,
due to its strategic location as a defensive fort positioned between
Kerala and Gujarat, as well as its prominence for Arabian horse
imports.[44]
The initial capture of
Goa

Goa from the Bijapur sultanate in 1510 was soon
countered by the Bijapuris, but with the help of Hindu privateer
Timoji, on November 25 of the same year it was recaptured.[49][50] In
Goa, Albuquerque began the first Portuguese mint in
India

India in 1510.[51]
He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry local women, built a church
in honor of St. Catherine (as it was recaptured on her feast day), and
attempted to build rapport with the Hindus by protecting their temples
and reducing their tax requirements.[50] The Portuguese maintained
friendly relations with the south Indian Emperors of the Vijayanagara
Empire.[52]
In April 1511 Albuquerque sailed to
Malacca

Malacca in Malaysia,[53] the
largest spice market of the period.[54] Though the trade was largely
dominated by the Gujurati, other groups such as the Turks, Persians,
Armenians, Tamils and Abyssinians traded there.[54] Albuquerque
targeted
Malacca

Malacca to impede the Muslim and Venetian influence in the
spice trade and increase that of Lisbon.[55] By July 1511, Albuquerque
had captured
Malacca

Malacca and sent
Antonio de Abreu

Antonio de Abreu and Francisco Serrão
(along with Ferdinand Magellan) to explore the Indonesian
archipelago.[56]
Iberian 'mare clausum' in the Age of Discovery. Afonso de
Albuquerque's strategy to encircle the Indian Ocean is shown.
The
Malacca

Malacca peninsula became the strategic base for Portuguese trade
expansion with
China

China and Southeast Asia. A strong gate, called the A
Famosa, was erected to defend the city and still remains.[57] Learning
of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sent Duarte
Fernandes on a diplomatic mission to the Kingdom of Siam (modern
Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing
amicable relations and trade between both kingdoms.[58][59]
The Portuguese empire pushed further south and proceeded to discover
Timor in 1512. Jorge de Meneses discovered
New Guinea

New Guinea in 1526, naming
it the "Island of the Papua".[60] In 1517,
João da Silveira commanded
a fleet to Chittagong,[61] and by 1528, the Portuguese had established
a settlement in Chittagong.[62] The Portuguese eventually based their
center of operations along the Hugli River, where they encountered
Muslims, Hindus, and Portuguese deserters known as Chatins.[63]
China

China and Japan[edit]
See also: Chinese people in Portugal, Nanban trade, Slavery in
Portugal, and Portuguese Nagasaki
The Portuguese founded the city of Nagasaki, Japan
Jorge Alvares was the first European to reach
China

China by sea, while the
Romans were the first overland via
Asia

Asia Minor.[64][65][66][67] He was
also the first European to discover Hong Kong.[68][69] In 1514, Afonso
de Albuquerque, the
Viceroy

Viceroy of the Estado da India, dispatched Italian
Rafael Perestrello to sail to
China

China in order to pioneer European trade
relations with the nation.[70][71]
In spite of initial harmony and excitement between the two cultures,
difficulties began to arise shortly afterwards, including
misunderstanding, bigotry, and even hostility.[72] The Portuguese
explorer Simão de Andrade incited poor relations with
China

China due to
his pirate activities, raiding Chinese shipping, attacking a Chinese
official, and kidnappings of Chinese. He based himself at Tamao island
in a fort. The Chinese claimed that Simão kidnapped Chinese boys and
girls to be molested and cannibalized.[73] The Chinese sent a squadron
of junks against Portuguese caravels that succeeded in driving the
Portuguese away and reclaiming Tamao. As a result, the Chinese posted
an edict banning men with caucasian features from entering Canton,
killing multiple Portuguese there, and driving the Portuguese back to
sea.[74][75]
A depiction, from 1639, of the
Macau

Macau Peninsula, during the golden age
of colonization of Portuguese Macau.
After the Sultan of Bintan detained several Portuguese under Tomás
Pires, the Chinese then executed 23 Portuguese and threw the rest into
prison where they resided in squalid, sometimes fatal conditions. The
Chinese then massacred Portuguese who resided at
Ningbo

Ningbo and Fujian
trading posts in 1545 and 1549, due to extensive and damaging raids by
the Portuguese along the coast, which irritated the Chinese.[74]
Portuguese pirating was second to Japanese pirating by this period.
However, they soon began to shield Chinese junks and a cautious trade
began. In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to
settle in Macau, creating a warehouse in the trade of goods between
China, Japan,
Goa

Goa and Europe.[74][76]
Spice Islands (Moluccas) and Treaty of Zaragoza[edit]
Portugal

Portugal was the first European nation to establish trade routes with
Japan and China.
Portuguese operations in
Asia

Asia did not go unnoticed, and in 1521
Magellan arrived in the region and claimed the Philippines for Spain.
In 1525,
Spain

Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonize the
Moluccas islands, claiming they were in his zone of the Treaty of
Tordesillas, since there was no set limit to the east. The expedition
of
García Jofre de Loaísa reached the Moluccas, docking at Tidore.
With the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate, conflict
was inevitable, leading to nearly a decade of skirmishes. A resolution
was reached with the
Treaty of Zaragoza

Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, attributing the
Moluccas to
Portugal

Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.[77]
South Asia, Persian Gulf and Red Sea[edit]
The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf, contesting
control of the spice trade with the Ajuran
Empire

Empire and the Ottoman
Empire. In 1515,
Afonso de Albuquerque
_-_Autor_desconhecido.png/440px-Retrato_de_Afonso_de_Albuquerque_(após_1545)_-_Autor_desconhecido.png)
Afonso de Albuquerque conquered the
Huwala state of
Hormuz at the head of the Persian Gulf, establishing it as a vassal
state. Aden, however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in that same
year and another attempt by Albuquerque's successor Lopo Soares de
Albergaria in 1516. In 1521 a force led by António Correia captured
Bahrain, defeating the
Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil.[78] In a
shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the
southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. With the regular
maritime route linking
Lisbon

Lisbon to
Goa

Goa since 1497, the island of
Mozambique

Mozambique became a strategic port, and there was built Fort São
Sebastião and a hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected
the ships en route to Lisbon.[79]
In 1534, Gujarat faced attack from the
Mughals

Mughals and the Rajput states
of
Chitor

Chitor and Mandu. The Sultan
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat

Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to
sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese, establishing an
alliance to regain the country, giving in exchange Daman, Diu, Mumbai
and Bassein. It also regulated the trade of Gujarati ships departing
to the
Red Sea

Red Sea and passing through Bassein to pay duties and allow the
horse trade.[80] After Mughal ruler
Humayun

Humayun had success against
Bahadur, the latter signed another treaty with the Portuguese to
confirm the provisions and allowed the fort to be built in Diu.
Shortly afterward,
Humayun

Humayun turned his attention elsewhere, and the
Gujarats allied with the Ottomans to regain control of Diu and lay
siege to the fort. The two failed sieges of 1538 and 1546 put an end
to Ottoman ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony in the
region,[80][81] as well as gaining superiority over the Mughals.[82]
However, the Ottomans fought off attacks from the Portuguese in the
Red Sea

Red Sea and in the
Sinai Peninsula

Sinai Peninsula in 1541, and in the northern region
of the Persian Gulf in 1546 and 1552. Each entity ultimately had to
respect the sphere of influence of the other, albeit
unofficially.[83][84]
Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]
Portuguese carracks unload cargo in Lisbon. Original engraving by
Theodor de Bry, 1593, coloured at a later date.
After a series of prolonged contacts with Ethiopia, the Portuguese
embassy made contact with the Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Kingdom led by
Rodrigo de Lima in 1520.[85][86] This coincided with the Portuguese
search for Prester John, as they soon associated the kingdom as his
land.[87] The fear of Turkish advances within the Portuguese and
Ethiopian sectors also played a role in their alliance.[85][88] The
Adal Sultanate

Adal Sultanate defeated the Ethiopians in the battle of Shimbra Kure
in 1529, and
Islam

Islam spread further in the region.
Portugal

Portugal responded by
aiding king Gelawdewos with Portuguese soldiers and muskets. Though
the Ottomans responded with support of soldiers and muskets to the
Adal Sultanate, after the death of the Adali sultan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim
al-Ghazi in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543, the joint Adal-Ottoman
force retreated.[89][90][91]
The Portuguese also made direct contact with the Kongolose vassal
state Ndongo and its ruler Ngola Kiljuane in 1520, after the latter
requested missionaries.[92] Kongolese king Afonso I interfered with
the process with denunciations, and later sent a Kongo mission to
Ndongo after the latter had arrested the Portuguese mission that
came.[92] The growing official and unofficial slave trading with
Ndongo strained relations between Kongo and the Portuguese, and even
had Portuguese ambassadors from Sao Tome support Ndongo against the
Kingdom of Kongo.[93][94] However, when the Jaga attacked and
conquered regions of Kongo in 1568, Portuguese assisted Kongo in their
defeat.[95] In response, the Kongo allowed the colonization of Luanda
Island; Luanda was established by
Paulo Dias de Novais in 1576 and
soon became a slave port.[95][96] De Novais' subsequent alliance with
Ndongo angered
Luso-Africans who resented the influence from the
Crown.[97] In 1579, Ndongo ruler Ngola Kiluanje kia Ndamdi massacred
Portuguese and Kongolese residents in the Ndongo capital Kabasa under
the influence of Portuguese renegades. Both the Portuguese and Kongo
fought against Ndongo, and off-and-on warfare between the Ndongo and
Portugal

Portugal would persist for decades.[98]
Missionary expeditions[edit]
St. Francis Xavier

St. Francis Xavier requesting
John III of Portugal
.png/440px-D._João_III_-_Cristóvão_Lopes_(attrib).png)
John III of Portugal for a missionary
expedition in Asia.
In 1542, Jesuit missionary
Francis Xavier

Francis Xavier arrived in
Goa

Goa at the
service of King John III of Portugal, in charge of an Apostolic
Nunciature. At the same time Francisco Zeimoto, António Mota, and
other traders arrived in Japan for the first time. According to
Fernão Mendes Pinto, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived
at Tanegashima, where the locals were impressed by firearms, that
would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.[99] By
1570 the Portuguese bought part of a Japanese port where they founded
a small part of the city of Nagasaki,[100] and it became the major
trading port in Japan in the triangular trade with
China

China and
Europe.[101]
The Portuguese were defeated in their attempt to capture cities and
sultanates, on the Somali coast such as Sultanate of Mogadishu, Merca,
and
Barawa

Barawa by the Somalis of the Ajuran Empire.[102] Guarding its
trade from both European and Asian competitors,
Portugal

Portugal dominated not
only the trade between
Asia

Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade
between different regions of
Asia

Asia and Africa, such as India,
Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, followed the
Portuguese to spread
Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholicism to
Asia

Asia and
Africa

Africa with mixed
success.[103]
Colonization efforts in the Americas[edit]
Main article: Portuguese colonization of the Americas
Canada[edit]
The Portuguese mapped and claimed Canada in 1499 and 1500s
Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Portuguese Crown, under the
kings Manuel I, John III and Sebastian, also claimed territorial
rights in North America (reached by
John Cabot

John Cabot in 1497 and 1498). To
that end, in 1499 and 1500,
João Fernandes Lavrador explored
Greenland

Greenland and the north Atlantic coast of Canada, which accounts for
the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.[104]
Subsequently, in 1500–1501 and 1502, the brothers Gaspar and Miguel
Corte-Real explored what is today the Canadian province of
Newfoundland

Newfoundland and Labrador, and Greenland, claiming these lands for
Portugal. In 1506, King Manuel I created taxes for the cod fisheries
in
Newfoundland

Newfoundland waters.[105] Around 1521,
João Álvares Fagundes

João Álvares Fagundes was
granted donatary rights to the inner islands of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence and also created a settlement on
Cape Breton Island

Cape Breton Island to serve
as a base for cod fishing. Pressure from natives and competing
European fisheries prevented a permanent establishment and was
abandoned five years later. Several attempts to establish settlements
in
Newfoundland

Newfoundland over the next half-century also failed.[106]
Brazil[edit]
Within a few years after Cabral arrived from Brazil, competition came
along from France. In 1503, an expedition under the command of
Gonçalo Coelho reported French raids on the Brazilian coasts,[107]
and explorer
Binot Paulmier de Gonneville

Binot Paulmier de Gonneville traded for brazilwood after
making contact in southern Brazil a year later.[108] Expeditions
sponsored by Francis I along the North American coast directly
violated of the Treaty of Tordesilhas.[109] By 1531, the French had
stationed a trading post off of an island on the Brazilian coast.[109]
The increase in brazilwood smuggling from the French led
João III
.png/440px-D._João_III_-_Cristóvão_Lopes_(attrib).png)
João III to
press an effort to establish effective occupation of the
territory.[110] In 1531, a royal expedition led by Martim Afonso de
Sousa and his brother Pero Lopes went to patrol the whole Brazilian
coast, banish the French, and create some of the first colonial
towns—among them São Vicente, in 1532.[111] Sousa returned to
Lisbon

Lisbon a year later to become governor of
India

India and never returned to
Brazil.[112][113] The French attacks did cease to an extent after
retaliation led to the Portuguese paying the French to stop attacking
Portuguese ships throughout the Atlantic,[109] but the attacks would
continue to be a problem well into the 1560s.[114]
A map from 1574 showing the 15 hereditary captaincy colonies of Brazil
Upon de Sousa's arrival and success, fifteen latitudinal tracts,
theoretically to span from the coast to the Tordesillas limit, were
decreed by
João III
.png/440px-D._João_III_-_Cristóvão_Lopes_(attrib).png)
João III on 28 September 1532.[112][115] The plot of the
lands formed as a hereditary captaincies (Capitanias Hereditárias) to
grantees rich enough to support settlement, as had been done
successfully in
Madeira

Madeira and
Cape Verde

Cape Verde islands.[116] Each
captain-major was to build settlements, grant allotments and
administer justice, being responsible for developing and taking the
costs of colonization, although not being the owner: he could transmit
it to offspring, but not sell it. Twelve recipients came from
Portuguese gentry who become prominent in
Africa

Africa and
India

India and senior
officials of the court, such as João de Barros.[117]
Of the fifteen original captaincies, only two,
Pernambuco

Pernambuco and São
Vicente, prospered.[118] Both were dedicated to the crop of sugar
cane, and the settlers managed to maintain alliances with Native
Americans. The rise of the sugar industry came about because the Crown
took the easiest sources of profit (brazilwood, spices, etc.), leaving
settlers to come up with new revenue sources.[119] The establishment
of the sugar cane industry demanded intensive labor that would be met
with Native American and, later, African slaves.[120] Deeming the
capitanias system ineffective,
João III
.png/440px-D._João_III_-_Cristóvão_Lopes_(attrib).png)
João III decided to centralize the
government of the colony in order to "give help and assistance" to
grantees. In 1548 he created the first General Government, sending in
Tomé de Sousa as first governor and selecting a capital at the Bay of
All Saints, making it at the Captaincy of Bahia.[121][122]
Tomé de Sousa built the capital of Brazil, Salvador, at the Bay of
All Saints in 1549.[123] Among de Sousa's 1000 man expedition were
soldiers, workers, and six
Jesuits

Jesuits led by Manuel da Nóbrega.[124] The
Jesuits

Jesuits would have an essential role in the colonization of Brazil,
including São Vicente, and São Paulo, the latter which Nóbrega
co-founded.[125] Along with the Jesuit missions later came disease
among the natives, among them plague and smallpox.[126] Subsequently,
the French would resettle in Portuguese territory at Guanabara Bay,
which would be called
France

France Antarctique.[127] While a Portuguese
ambassador was sent to
Paris

Paris to report the French intrusion, Joao III
appointed
Mem de Sá as new Brazilian governor general, and Sá left
for Brazil in 1557.[127] By 1560, Sá and his forces had expelled the
combined Huguenot, Scottish Calvinist, and slave forces from France
Antarctique, but left survivors after burning their fortifications and
villages. These survivors would settle Gloria Bay, Flamengo Beach, and
Parapapuã with the assistance of the Tamoio natives.[128]
The Tamoio had been allied with the French since the settlement of
France

France Antarctique, and despite the French loss in 1560, the Tamoio
were still a threat.[129] They launched two attacks in 1561 and 1564
(the latter event was assisting the French), and were nearly
successful with each.[130][131] By this time period, Manuel de
Nóbrega, along with fellow Jesuit José de Anchieta, took part as
members of attacks on the Tamoios and as spies for their
resources.[129][130] From 1565 through 1567
Mem de Sá and his forces
eventually destroyed
France Antarctique

France Antarctique at Guanabara Bay. He and his
nephew, Estácio de Sá, then established the city of Rio de Janeiro
in 1567, after
Mem de Sá proclaimed the area "São Sebastião do Rio
de Janeiro" in 1565.[132] By 1575, the Tamoios had been subdued and
essentially were extinct,[129] and by 1580 the government became more
of a ouvidor general rather than the ouvidores.[133]
Iberian Union, Protestant rivalry, and colonial stasis
(1580–1663)[edit]
Main articles:
Iberian Union
.svg/250px-Full_Ornamented_Coat_of_Arms_of_Philip_II_of_Spain_(1580-1598).svg.png)
Iberian Union and Council of Portugal
See also: Dutch Brazil
The Luso-Hispanic (or Iberian)
Empire

Empire in 1598, during the reign of
Philip I and II, King of
Portugal

Portugal and Spain.
In 1580, King
Philip II of Spain

Philip II of Spain invaded
Portugal

Portugal after a crisis of
succession brought about by King Sebastian of Portugal's death during
a disastrous Portuguese attack on Alcácer Quibir in
Morocco

Morocco in 1578.
At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was crowned Philip I of
Portugal, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires under Spanish
Habsburg rule in a dynastic Iberian Union.[134] At Tomar, Philip
promised to keep the empires legally distinct, leaving the
administration of the Portuguese
Empire

Empire to Portuguese nationals, with
a
Viceroy

Viceroy of
Portugal

Portugal in
Lisbon

Lisbon seeing to his interests.[135] Philip
even had the capital moved to
Lisbon

Lisbon for a two-year period (1581–83)
due to it being the most important city in the Iberian peninsula.[136]
All the Portuguese colonies accepted the new state of affairs except
for the Azores, which held out for António, a Portuguese rival
claimant to the throne who had garnered the support of Catherine de
Medici of
France

France in exchange for the promise to cede Brazil. Spanish
forces eventually captured the islands in 1583.[137]
The Tordesillas boundary between Spanish and Portuguese control in
South America

South America was then increasingly ignored by the Portuguese, who
pressed beyond it into the heart of Brazil,[135] allowing them to
expand the territory to the west. Exploratory missions were carried
out both ordered by the government, the "entradas" (entries), and by
private initiative, the "bandeiras" (flags), by the
"bandeirantes".[138] These expeditions lasted for years venturing into
unmapped regions, initially to capture natives and force them into
slavery, and later focusing on finding gold, silver and diamond
mines.[139]
The Recovery of São
Salvador da Bahia de Todos os Santos, by Philip
III of Portugal, from the Dutch Republic.
However, the union meant that
Spain

Spain dragged
Portugal

Portugal into its
conflicts with England,
France

France and the Dutch Republic, countries which
were beginning to establish their own overseas empires.[140] The
primary threat came from the Dutch, who had been engaged in a struggle
for independence against
Spain

Spain since 1568. In 1581, the Seven
Provinces gained independence from the Habsburg rule, leading Philip
II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil where
Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production.[141]
Spanish imperial trade networks now were opened to Portuguese
merchants, which was particularly lucrative for Portuguese slave
traders who could now sell slaves in Spanish America at a higher price
than could be fetched in Brazil.[142] In addition to this newly
acquired access to the Spanish asientos, the Portuguese were able to
solve their bullion shortage issues with access to the production of
the silver mining in Peru and Mexico.[143]
Manila

Manila was also
incorporated into the Macau-
Nagasaki

Nagasaki trading network, allowing
Macanese of Portuguese descent to act as trading agents for Philippine
Spaniards and use Spanish silver from the
Americas
.svg/400px-Americas_(orthographic_projection).svg.png)
Americas in trade with
China, and they later drew competition with the Dutch East India
Company.[144]
In 1592, during the war with Spain, an English fleet captured a large
Portuguese carrack off the Azores, the Madre de Deus, which was loaded
with 900 tons of merchandise from
India

India and
China

China estimated at half a
million pounds (nearly half the size of English Treasury at the
time).[145] This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanized
English interest in the region.[146] That same year, Cornelis de
Houtman was sent by Dutch merchants to Lisbon, to gather as much
information as he could about the Spice Islands.[144][147]
The Dutch eventually realized the importance of
Goa

Goa in breaking up the
Portuguese empire in Asia. In 1583, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen
van Linschoten (1563 – 8 February 1611), formerly the Dutch
secretary of the Archbishop of Goa, had acquired information while
serving in that position that contained the location of secret
Portuguese trade routes throughout Asia, including those to the East
Indies and Japan. It was published in 1595; the text was then included
in the larger volume published in 1596 under the title "Itinerario:
voyage, ofte schipvaert van Jan Huygen van Linschoten naer Oost ofte
Portugaels Indien, 1579–1592, Volume 2, Issue 2, by Jan Huygen van
Linschoten, Linschoten-Vereeniging (Hague, Netherlands)". Dutch and
English interests used this new information, leading to their
commercial expansion, including the foundation of the English East
India

India Company in 1600, and the Dutch East
India

India Company in 1602. These
developments allowed the entry of chartered companies into the East
Indies.[148][149]
The Portuguese victory at the
Second Battle of Guararapes

Second Battle of Guararapes ended Dutch
presence in Pernambuco.
The Dutch took their fight overseas, attacking Spanish and Portuguese
colonies and beginning the Dutch–Portuguese War, which would last
for over sixty years (1602–1663). Other European nations, such as
Protestant England, assisted the
Dutch Empire

Dutch Empire in the war. The Dutch
attained victories in
Asia

Asia and
Africa

Africa with assistance of various
indigenous allies, eventually wrenching control of Malacca, Ceylon,
and São Jorge da Mina. The Dutch also had regional control of the
lucrative sugar-producing region of northeast Brazil as well as
Luanda, but the Portuguese regained these territories after
considerable struggle.[150][151]
Meanwhile, in the Arabian Peninsula, the Portuguese also lost control
of Ormuz by a joint alliance of the Safavids and the English in 1622,
and
Oman

Oman under the Al-Ya'arubs would capture
Muscat

Muscat in 1650.[152] They
would continue to use
Muscat

Muscat as a base for repetitive incursions
within the Indian Ocean, including capturing Fort Jesus in 1698.[153]
In
Ethiopia

Ethiopia and Japan in the 1630s, the ousting of missionaries by
local leaders severed influence in the respective regions.[154][155]
Second era (1663–1825)[edit]
Further information:
History of Portugal

History of Portugal (1640–1777) and History of
Portugal

Portugal (1777–1834)
The loss of colonies was one of the reasons that contributed to the
end of the personal union with Spain. In 1640 John IV was proclaimed
King of
Portugal

Portugal and the
Portuguese Restoration War began. Even before
the war's final resolution, the crown established the Overseas
Council, conceived in 1642 on the short-lived model of the Council of
India

India (1604-1614), and established in 1643, it was the governing body
for most of the Portuguese overseas empire. The exceptions were North
Africa, Madeira, and the Azores. All correspondence concerning
overseas possessions were funneled through the council. When the
Portuguese court fled to Brazil in 1807, following the Napoleonic
invasion of Iberia, Brazil was removed from the jurisdiction of the
council. It made recommendations concerning personnel for the
administrative, fiscal, and military, as well as bishops of overseas
dioceses.[156] A distinguished seventeenth-century member was Salvador
de Sá.[157]
Portuguese India

Portuguese India (1502–1961)
In 1661 the Portuguese offered
Bombay

Bombay and Tangier to
England

England as part
of a dowry, and over the next hundred years the English gradually
became the dominant trader in India, gradually excluding the trade of
other powers. In 1668
Spain

Spain recognized the end of the Iberian Union
and in exchange
Portugal

Portugal ceded
Ceuta

Ceuta to the Spanish crown.[158]
After the Portuguese were defeated by the Indian rulers Chimnaji Appa
of the Maratha Empire[159][160] and by
Shivappa Nayaka

Shivappa Nayaka of the Keladi
Nayaka Kingdom[161] and at the end of confrontations with the Dutch,
Portugal

Portugal was only able to cling onto
Goa

Goa and several minor bases in
India, and managed to regain territories in Brazil and Africa, but
lost forever to prominence in
Asia

Asia as trade was diverted through
increasing numbers of English, Dutch and French trading posts. Thus,
throughout the century, Brazil gained increasing importance to the
empire, which exported
Brazilwood

Brazilwood and sugar.[139]
Minas Gerais

Minas Gerais and the Gold Industry[edit]
In 1693, gold was discovered at
Minas Gerais

Minas Gerais in Brazil. Major
discoveries of gold and, later, diamonds in Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso
and Goiás led to a "gold rush", with a large influx of migrants.[162]
The village became the new economic center of the empire, with rapid
settlement and some conflicts. This gold cycle led to the creation of
an internal market and attracted a large number of immigrants. By
1739, at the apex of the mining boom, the population of Minas Gerais
was somewhere between 200,000 and 250,000.[163]
The
Portuguese Cortes

Portuguese Cortes sought the disbandment of the United Kingdom.
The gold rush considerably increased the revenue of the Portuguese
crown, who charged a fifth of all the ore mined, or the "fifth".
Diversion and smuggling were frequent, along with altercations between
Paulistas (residents of São Paulo) and Emboabas (immigrants from
Portugal

Portugal and other regions in Brazil), so a whole set of bureaucratic
controls began in 1710 with the captaincy of
São Paulo

São Paulo and Minas
Gerais. By 1718,
São Paulo

São Paulo and
Minas Gerais

Minas Gerais became two captaincies,
with eight vilas created in the latter.[164][165] The crown also
restricted the diamond mining within its jurisdiction and to private
contractors.[165] In spite of gold galvanizing global trade, the
plantation industry became the leading export for Brazil during this
period; sugar constituted at 50% of the exports (with gold at 46%) in
1760.[163]
Africans and Afro-Brazilians became the largest group of people in
Minas Gerais. Slaves labeled as 'Minas' and 'Angolas' rose in high
demand during the boom. The Akan within the 'Minas' group had a
reputation to have been experts in extrapolating gold in their native
regions, and became the preferred group. In spite of the high death
rate associated with the slaves involved in the mining industry, the
owners that allowed slaves that extracted above the minimum amount of
gold to keep the excesses, which in turn led to the possibility of
manumission. Those that became free partook in artisan jobs such as
cobblers, tailors, and blacksmiths. In spite of free blacks and
mulattoes playing a large role in Minas Gerais, the number of them
that received marginalization was greater there than in any other
region in Brazil.[166]
Gold discovered in
Mato Grosso

Mato Grosso and Goiás sparked an interest to
solidify the western borders of the colony. In the 1730s contact with
Spanish outposts occurred more frequently, and the Spanish threatened
to launch a military expedition in order to remove them. This failed
to happen and by the 1750s the Portuguese were able to implant a
political stronghold in the region.[167]
In 1755
Lisbon

Lisbon suffered a catastrophic earthquake, which together with
a subsequent tsunami killed between 40,000–60,000 people out of a
population of 275,000.[168] This sharply checked Portuguese colonial
ambitions in the late 18th century.[169]
According to economic historians, Portugal's colonial trade had a
substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth, 1500-1800.
Leonor Costa et al. conclude:
intercontinental trade had a substantial and increasingly positive
impact on economic growth. In the heyday of colonial expansion,
eliminating the economic links to empire would have reduced
Portugal’s per capita income by roughly a fifth. While the empire
helped the domestic economy it was not sufficient to annul the
tendency towards decline in relation to Europe’s advanced core which
set in from the 17th century onwards.[170]
Pombaline and post-Pombaline Brazil[edit]
Portuguese Brazil in 1790
Unlike Spain,
Portugal

Portugal did not divide its colonial territory in
America. The captaincies created there functioned under a centralized
administration in Salvador, which reported directly to the Crown in
Lisbon. The 18th century was marked by increasing centralization of
royal power throughout the Portuguese empire. The Jesuits, who
protected the natives against slavery, were brutally suppressed by the
Marquis of Pombal, which led to the dissolution of the order in the
region by 1759.[171] Pombal wished to improve the status of the
natives by declaring them free and increasing the mestizo population
by encouraging intermarriage between them and the white population.
Indigenous freedom decreased in contrast to its period under the
Jesuits, and the response to intermarriage was lukewarm at best.[172]
The crown's revenue from gold declined and plantation revenue
increased by the time of Pombal, and he made provisions to improve
each. Although he failed to spike the gold revenue, two short-term
companies he established for the plantation economy drove a
significant increase in production of cotton, rice, cacao, tobacco,
sugar. Slave labor increased as well as involvement from the textile
economy. The economic development as a whole was inspired by elements
of the Enlightenment in mainland Europe.[173] However, the diminished
influence from states such as the
United Kingdom

United Kingdom increased the
Kingdom's dependence upon Brazil.[174]
Encouraged by the example of the
United States

United States of America, which had
won its independence from Britain, the colonial province of Minas
Gerais attempted to achieve the same objective in 1789. However, the
Inconfidência Mineira

Inconfidência Mineira failed, its leaders were arrested, and of the
participants in the insurrections, the one of lowest social position,
Tiradentes, was hanged.[175] Among the conspiracies led by the Afro-
population was the Bahian revolt in 1798, led primarily by João de
Deus do Nascimento. Inspired by the French Revolution, leaders
proposed a society without slavery, food prices would be lowered, and
trade restriction abolished. Impoverished social conditions and a high
cost of living were among reasons of the revolt. Authorities diffused
the plot before major action began; they executed four of the
conspirators and exiled several others were exiled to the Atlantic
Coast of Africa.[176] Several more smaller-scale slave rebellions and
revolts would occur from 1801 and 1816 and fears within Brazil were
that it would become a "second Haiti".[177]
In spite of the conspiracies, the rule of
Portugal

Portugal in Brazil was not
under serious threat. Historian A.R. Disney states that the colonists
did not until the transferring of the Kingdom in 1808 assert influence
of policy changing due to direct contact,[178] and historian Gabriel
Paquette mentions that the threats in Brazil were largely unrealized
in
Portugal

Portugal until 1808 because of effective policing and
espionage.[179] More revolts would occur after the arrival of the
court.[180]
Brazilian Independence[edit]
Further information: Independence of Brazil; Transfer of the
Portuguese Court to Brazil; and
United Kingdom

United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and
the Algarves
Brazilian Independence

Brazilian Independence crippled the Portuguese Empire, both
economically and politically, for a long time.
In 1808,
Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal, and Dom João, Prince
Regent in place of his mother, Dona Maria I, ordered the transfer of
the royal court to Brazil. In 1815 Brazil was elevated to the status
of Kingdom, the Portuguese state officially becoming the United
Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (Reino Unido de Portugal,
Brasil e Algarves), and the capital was transferred from
Lisbon

Lisbon to Rio
de Janeiro, the only instance of a European country being ruled from
one of its colonies. There was also the election of Brazilian
representatives to the Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas (Portuguese
Constitutional Courts), the Parliament that assembled in
Lisbon

Lisbon in the
wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820.[181]
Although the royal family returned to
Portugal

Portugal in 1821, the interlude
led to a growing desire for independence amongst Brazilians. In 1822,
the son of Dom João VI, then prince-regent Dom Pedro I, proclaimed
the independence of Brazil on September 7, 1822, and was crowned
Emperor of the new
Empire

Empire of Brazil. Unlike the Spanish colonies of
South America, Brazil's independence was achieved without significant
bloodshed.[182][183]
Third era (1822–1999)[edit]
Main articles: Portuguese East Africa, Portuguese West Africa,
Portuguese Guinea, and Portuguese Timor
Further information:
Liberal Wars

Liberal Wars and History of Portugal
(1834–1910)
The façade of St. Paul's College in Macau, 1854
At the height of
European colonialism

European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal
had lost its territory in
South America

South America and all but a few bases in
Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding
its outposts in
Africa

Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with
other European powers there.
Portugal

Portugal pressed into the hinterland of
Angola

Angola and Mozambique, and explorers Serpa Pinto, Hermenegildo Capelo
and
Roberto Ivens

Roberto Ivens were among the first Europeans to cross
Africa

Africa west
to east.[184][185]
British Ultimatum

British Ultimatum and end of Portuguese monarchy (1890–1910)[edit]
In the 19th century,
Portugal

Portugal launched campaigns to solidify
Portuguese Africa.
The project to connect the two colonies, the Pink Map, was the main
objective of Portuguese policy in the 1880s.[186] However, the idea
was unacceptable to the British, who had their own aspirations of
contiguous British territory running from
Cairo

Cairo to Cape Town. The
British Ultimatum

British Ultimatum of 1890 was imposed upon King Carlos I of Portugal
and the
Pink Map

Pink Map came to an end.[186]
The King's reaction to the ultimatum was exploited by
republicans.[186] In 1908 King Carlos and Prince Luís Filipe were
murdered in Lisbon. Luís Filipe's brother, Manuel, became King Manuel
II of Portugal. Two years later he was overthrown and
Portugal

Portugal became
a republic.[187]
World War I[edit]
Main articles: German campaign in Angola, East African Campaign (World
War I), and
Portugal

Portugal during World War I
In 1914, the
German Empire

German Empire formulated plans to usurp
Angola

Angola from
Portuguese control.[188] Skirmishes between Portuguese and German
soldiers ensued, resulting in reinforcements being sent from the
mainland.[189] The main objective of these soldiers was to recapture
the
Kionga

Kionga Triangle, in northern Mozambique,the territory having been
subjugated by Germany. In 1916, after
Portugal

Portugal interned German ships
in Lisbon, Germany declared war on Portugal.
Portugal

Portugal followed suit,
thus entering World War I.[190] Early in the war,
Portugal

Portugal was
involved mainly in supplying the Allies positioned in France. In 1916,
there was only one attack on the Portuguese territory, in
Madeira.[191] In 1917, one of the actions taken by
Portugal

Portugal was to
assist Britain in its timber industry, imperative to the war effort.
Along with the Canadian Forestry Corps, Portuguese personnel
established logging infrastructure in an area now referred to as the
"Portuguese Fireplace".[192] Throughout the year,
Portugal

Portugal dispatched
contingents of troops to the Allied front in France. Midway in the
year,
Portugal

Portugal suffered its first
World War I

World War I casualty. Meanwhile, in
Portuguese Africa,
Portugal

Portugal and the British fought numerous battles
against the Germans in both
Mozambique

Mozambique and Angola. Later in the year,
U-boats

U-boats entered Portuguese waters again and, once more, attacked
Madeira, and sunk multiple Portuguese ships. Through the beginning of
1918,
Portugal

Portugal continued to fight along the Allied front against
Germany, including participation in the infamous Battle of La
Lys.[193] As autumn approached, Germany found success in both
Portuguese Africa, and against Portuguese vessels, sinking multiple
ships. After nearly three years of fighting (from a Portuguese
perspective),
World War I

World War I ended, with an armistice being signed by
Germany. At the Versailles Conference,
Portugal

Portugal regained control of
all its lost territory, but did not retain possession (by the
principle of uti possidetis) of territories gained during the war,
except for Kionga, a port city in modern-day Tanzania.[194]
Portuguese territories in
Africa

Africa eventually included the modern
nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau,
Angola, and Mozambique.[195]
Turmoil and decolonization (1951–1999)[edit]
Main articles: Portuguese Colonial War, Carnation Revolution, Transfer
of sovereignty over Macau, and Annexation of Goa
In the 20th century,
Portugal

Portugal no longer called itself an empire, but a
pluricontinental nation with overseas provinces.
In the wake of World War II, decolonization movements began to gain
momentum in the empires of the European powers. The ensuing Cold War
also created instabilities among Portuguese overseas populations, as
the
United States

United States and
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union vied to increase their spheres of
influence. Following the granting of independence to
India

India by Britain
in 1947, and the decision by
France

France to allow its enclaves in
India

India to
be incorporated into the newly independent nation, pressure was placed
on
Portugal

Portugal to do the same.[196] This was resisted by António de
Oliveira Salazar, who had taken power in 1933. Salazar rebuffed a
request in 1950 by Indian Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru to return
the enclaves, viewing them as integral parts of Portugal.[197] The
following year, the Portuguese constitution was amended to change the
status of the colonies to overseas provinces. In 1954, a local
uprising resulted in the overthrow of the Portuguese authorities in
the Indian enclave of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The existence of the
remaining Portuguese colonies in
India

India became increasingly untenable
and Nehru enjoyed the support of almost all the Indian domestic
political parties as well as the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and its allies. In 1961,
shortly after an uprising against the Portuguese in Angola, Nehru
ordered the Indian Army into Goa, Daman and Diu, which were quickly
captured and formally annexed the following year. Salazar refused to
recognize the transfer of sovereignty, believing the territories to be
merely occupied. The Province of
Goa

Goa continued to be represented in
the Portuguese National Assembly until 1974.[198]
António de Oliveira Salazar

António de Oliveira Salazar sought the preservation of a
pluricontinental Portugal.
The outbreak of violence in February 1961 in
Angola

Angola was the beginning
of the end of Portugal's empire in Africa. Portuguese army officers in
Angola

Angola held the view that it would be incapable of dealing militarily
with an outbreak of guerilla warfare and therefore that negotiations
should begin with the independence movements. However, Salazar
publicly stated his determination to keep the empire intact, and by
the end of the year, 50,000 troops had been stationed there. The same
year, the tiny Portuguese fort of
São João Baptista de Ajudá

São João Baptista de Ajudá in
Ouidah, a remnant of the West African slave trade, was annexed by the
new government of Dahomey (now Benin) that had gained its independence
from France. Unrest spread from
Angola

Angola to Guinea, which rebelled in
1963, and
Mozambique

Mozambique in 1964.[198]
The rise of Soviet influence among the Movimento das Forças Armadas's
military (MFA) and working class, and the cost and unpopularity of the
Portuguese Colonial War

Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974), in which
Portugal

Portugal resisted to
the emerging nationalist guerrilla movements in some of its African
territories, eventually led to the collapse of the Estado Novo regime
in 1974. Known as the "Carnation Revolution", one of the first acts of
the MFA-led government which then came into power – the National
Salvation Junta (Junta de Salvação Nacional) – was to end the wars
and negotiate Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. These
events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's
African territories (mostly from
Angola

Angola and Mozambique), creating over
a million Portuguese refugees – the retornados.[199] Portugal's new
ruling authorities also recognized
Goa

Goa and other Portuguese India's
territories invaded by India's military forces, as Indian territories.
Benin's claims over
São João Baptista de Ajudá

São João Baptista de Ajudá were accepted by
Portugal

Portugal in 1974.[200]
According to one historian, Portuguese rulers were unwilling to meet
the demands of their colonial subjects (unlike other European powers)
in part because Portuguese elites believed that "
Portugal

Portugal lacked the
means to conduct a successful “exit strategy” (akin to the
“neocolonial” approach followed by the British, the French, or the
Belgians)" and in part due to the lack of "a free and open debate [in
Salazar's dictatorial state] on the costs of upholding an empire
against the anti-colonial consensus that had prevailed in the United
Nations since the early 1960s".[201]
Civil wars in
Angola

Angola and
Mozambique

Mozambique promptly broke out, with incoming
communist governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the
Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries) fighting against
insurgent groups supported by nations like Zaire, South Africa, and
the United States.[202]
East Timor

East Timor also declared independence in 1975
by making an exodus of many Portuguese refugees to Portugal, which was
also known as retornados. However,
East Timor

East Timor was almost immediately
invaded by neighbouring Indonesia, which would later occupied it up
until 1999. A United Nations-sponsored referendum resulted in a
majority of East Timorese choosing independence, which was finally
achieved in 2002.[203]
In 1987,
Portugal

Portugal signed the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration with
the People's
Republic

Republic of
China

China to establish the process and conditions
for the transfer of sovereignty of Macau, its last remaining colony.
While this process was similar to the agreement between the United
Kingdom and
China

China two years earlier regarding Hong Kong, the
Portuguese transfer to
China

China was met with less resistance than that of
Britain regarding Hong Kong, as
Portugal

Portugal had already recognized Macau
as Chinese territory under Portuguese administration in 1979.[204]
Under the transfer agreement,
Macau

Macau is to be governed under a one
country, two systems policy, in which it will retain a high degree of
autonomy and maintain its capitalist way of life for at least 50 years
after the handover in 2049. The handover in 1999 officially marked the
end of the Portuguese
Empire

Empire and end of colonialism in Asia.[205]
Legacy[edit]
actual possessions
explorations
areas of influence and trade
claims of sovereignty
trading posts
main sea explorations, routes and areas of
influence.
The
Se Cathedral

Se Cathedral in Goa, India, an example of Portuguese architecture
and one of the largest churches in Asia.
Presently, the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries

Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)
serves as the cultural and intergovernmental successor of the
Empire.[206]
Macau

Macau was returned to
China

China on December 20, 1999, under the terms of
an agreement negotiated between People's
Republic

Republic of
China

China and
Portugal

Portugal twelve years earlier. Nevertheless, the Portuguese language
remains co-official with
Cantonese Chinese

Cantonese Chinese in Macau.[207]
Currently, the Azores, Madeira, and
Savage Islands

Savage Islands are the only
overseas territories that remain politically linked to Portugal.
Although
Portugal

Portugal began the process of decolonizing
East Timor

East Timor in
1975,
Macau

Macau during 1999–2002 was sometimes considered Portugal's
last remaining colony, as the Indonesian invasion of
East Timor

East Timor was
not justified by Portugal.[208]
Eight of the former colonies of
Portugal

Portugal have Portuguese as their
official language. Together with Portugal, they are now members of the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries, which when combined total
10,742,000 km², or 7.2% of the Earth's landmass (148 939
063 km²).[209] There are six associate observers of the CPLP:
Georgia, Japan, Mauritius, Namibia, Senegal, and Turkey. Moreover,
twelve candidate countries or regions have applied for membership to
the CPLP and are awaiting approval.[210]
Portuguese remains an official language in
Macau

Macau after the handover to
China
Today, Portuguese is one of the world's major languages, ranked sixth
overall with approximately 240 million speakers around the globe.[211]
It is the third most spoken language in the Americas, mainly due to
Brazil, although there are also significant communities of lusophones
in nations such as Canada, the USA and Venezuela. In addition, there
are numerous Portuguese-based creole languages, including the one
utilized by the
Kristang people

Kristang people in Malacca.[212]
For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to
introduce the sweet orange in Europe, in several modern Indo-European
languages the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are
Albanian portokall, Bulgarian портокал (portokal), Greek
πορτοκάλι (portokali), Macedonian портокал
(portokal), Persian پرتقال (porteghal), and Romanian
portocală.[213][214] Related names can be found in other languages,
such as Arabic البرتقال (bourtouqal), Georgian
ფორთოხალი (p'ort'oxali), Turkish portakal and
Amharic

Amharic birtukan.[213] Also, in southern Italian dialects (e.g.,
Neapolitan), an orange is portogallo or purtuallo, literally "(the)
Portuguese (one)", in contrast to standard Italian arancia.
In light of its international importance,
Portugal

Portugal and Brazil are
leading a movement to include Portuguese as one of the official
languages of the United Nations.[215]
See also[edit]
Evolution of the Portuguese Empire
Portuguese India
Portuguese inventions
Portuguese in Africa
Lusotropicalism
Portuguese Surinamese
Strait of Magellan
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U-boats of
World War I

World War I - Kaiserliche Marine -
Uboat.net.
^ "Portuguese Fireplace". Newforestexplorersguide.co.uk. Retrieved
2014-08-06.
^
Battle of La Lys

Battle of La Lys Archived June 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Thomas, H.B., "The
Kionga

Kionga Triangle", Tanganyika Notes and Records
Volume 31 1951, pp. 47–50.
^ Koffi, Ettien (2012). Paradigm Shift in Language Planning and
Policy: Game-Theoretic Solutions. Boston/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,
Inc. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-934078-10-5. Retrieved 12 July
2012.
^ Pearson 1987, p. 158
^ Pearson 1987, p. 160
^ a b Anderson 2000, p. 153
^ Dismantling the Portuguese Empire,
Time Magazine

Time Magazine (Monday, July 7,
1975)
^ Sao Joao Recognizance
^ Oliveira, Pedro Aires (2017-05-24). "Decolonization in Portuguese
Africa".
doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-41.
^ Arnold & Wiener 2012, pp. 11–12
^ "East Timor: Birth of a nation". Retrieved 12 July 2012.
^ "Joint declaration of the Government of the People's
Republic

Republic of
China

China and The Government of the
Republic

Republic of
Portugal

Portugal on the question
of Macao". Government Printing Bureau (Macao SAR). 1987. Retrieved
2010-04-26.
^
Macau

Macau and the end of empire, 18 December 1999. BBC News
^ "CPLP Histórico – Como surgiu?" (in Portuguese). CPLP. Retrieved
16 December 2015.
^ "CATALOGING POLICY AND SUPPORT OFFICE: Macau". Retrieved 12 July
2012.
^ de Almeida, p. 92
^ "CPLP". Retrieved 2010-08-12.
^ pt:CPLP
^ "língua portuguesa". Retrieved 2010-08-12.
^ Velupillai, p. 519
^ a b "Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database: Sorting Citrus
Names".
University of Melbourne

University of Melbourne (www.search.unimelb.edu.au). Retrieved
11 December 2012.
^ Ostergren, Robert C.; Le Bossé, Mathias (2011). The Europeans: A
Geography of People, Culture, and Environment (2nd ed.). Guilford
Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-60918-140-6.
^ "ONU: Petição para tornar português língua oficial".
Diario.iol.pt. 2005-11-17. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
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External links[edit]
Library resources about
Portuguese Empire
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
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Empire

Empire Timeline
Dutch Portuguese Colonial History Dutch Portuguese Colonial History:
history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca,
Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains,
maps.
"The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate
Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in
Europe" by Thomas Kitchin
Forts of the Spice Islands of Indonesia
Senaka Weeraratna, Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the
Portuguese
(1505–1658)<http://vgweb.org/unethicalconversion/port_rep.htm>2005]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Portuguese Empire.
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Portuguese overseas empire
North Africa
15th century
1415–1640
Ceuta
1458–1550
Alcácer Ceguer (El Qsar es Seghir)
1471–1550
Arzila (Asilah)
1471–1662
Tangier
1485–1550
Mazagan (El Jadida)
1487–16th century
Ouadane
1488–1541
Safim (Safi)
1489
Graciosa
16th century
1505–1541
Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué (Agadir)
1506–1525
Mogador (Essaouira)
1506–1525
Aguz (Souira Guedima)
1506–1769
Mazagan (El Jadida)
1513–1541
Azamor (Azemmour)
1515–1541
São João da Mamora (Mehdya)
1577–1589
Arzila (Asilah)
Sub-Saharan Africa
15th century
1455–1633
Anguim
1462–1975
Cape Verde
1470–1975
São Tomé1
1471–1975
Príncipe1
1474–1778
Annobón
1478–1778
Fernando Poo (Bioko)
1482–1637
Elmina

Elmina (São Jorge da Mina)
1482–1642
Portuguese Gold Coast
1508–15472
Madagascar3
1498–1540
Mascarene Islands
16th century
1500–1630
Malindi
1501–1975
Portuguese Mozambique
1502–1659
Saint Helena
1503–1698
Zanzibar
1505–1512
Quíloa (Kilwa)
1506–1511
Socotra
1557–1578
Accra
1575–1975
Portuguese Angola
1588–1974
Cacheu4
1593–1698
Mombassa (Mombasa)
17th century
1645–1888
Ziguinchor
1680–1961
São João Baptista de Ajudá
1687–1974
Bissau4
18th century
1728–1729
Mombassa (Mombasa)
1753–1975
Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe
19th century
1879–1974
Portuguese Guinea
1885–1974
Portuguese Congo5
1 Part of
São Tomé and Príncipe

São Tomé and Príncipe from 1753.
2 Or 1600.
3 A factory (Anosy Region) and small temporary coastal bases.
4 Part of
Portuguese Guinea

Portuguese Guinea from 1879.
5 Part of
Portuguese Angola

Portuguese Angola from the 1920s.
Middle East [Persian Gulf]
16th century
1506–1615
Gamru (Bandar Abbas)
1507–1643
Sohar
1515–1622
Hormuz (Ormus)
1515–1648
Quriyat
1515–?
Qalhat
1515–1650
Muscat
1515?–?
Barka
1515–1633?
Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah)
1521–1602
Bahrain

Bahrain (Muharraq • Manama)
1521–1529?
Qatif
1521?–1551?
Tarut Island
1550–1551
Qatif
1588–1648
Matrah
17th century
1620–?
Khor Fakkan
1621?–?
As Sib
1621–1622
Qeshm
1623–?
Khasab
1623–?
Libedia
1624–?
Kalba
1624–?
Madha
1624–1648
Dibba Al-Hisn
1624?–?
Bandar-e Kong
Indian subcontinent
15th century
1498–1545
Laccadive Islands
(Lakshadweep)
16th century
Portuguese India
• 1500–1663
Cochim (Kochi)
• 1501–1663
Cannanore (Kannur)
• 1502–1658
1659–1661
Quilon
(Coulão / Kollam)
• 1502–1661
Pallipuram (
Cochin

Cochin de Cima)
• 1507–1657
Negapatam (Nagapatnam)
• 1510–1961
Goa
• 1512–1525
1750
Calicut
(Kozhikode)
• 1518–1619
Portuguese Paliacate outpost (Pulicat)
• 1521–1740
Chaul
(Portuguese India)
• 1523–1662
Mylapore
• 1528–1666
Chittagong
(Porto Grande De Bengala)
• 1531–1571
Chaul
• 1531–1571
Chalé
• 1534–1601
Salsette Island
• 1534–1661
Bombay

Bombay (Mumbai)
• 1535
Ponnani
• 1535–1739
Baçaím (Vasai-Virar)
• 1536–1662
Cranganore (Kodungallur)
• 1540–1612
Surat
• 1548–1658
Tuticorin (Thoothukudi)
• 1559–1961
Daman and Diu
• 1568–1659
Mangalore
(Portuguese India)
• 1579–1632
Hugli
• 1598–1610
Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)
1518–1521
Maldives
1518–1658
Portuguese
Ceylon

Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
1558–1573
Maldives
17th century
Portuguese India
• 1687–1749
Mylapore
18th century
Portuguese India
• 1779–1954
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
East
Asia

Asia and Oceania
16th century
1511–1641
Portuguese Malacca
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Portugal_(1640).svg.png)
Portuguese Malacca [Malaysia]
1512–1621
Maluku [Indonesia]
• 1522–1575
Ternate
• 1576–1605
Ambon
• 1578–1650
Tidore
1512–1665
Makassar
1557–1999
Macau

Macau [China]
1580–1586
Nagasaki

Nagasaki [Japan]
17th century
1642–1975
Portuguese Timor

Portuguese Timor (East Timor)1
19th century
Portuguese Macau
• 1864–1999
Coloane
• 1851–1999
Taipa
• 1890–1999
Ilha Verde
20th century
Portuguese Macau
• 1938–1941
Lapa and Montanha (Hengqin)
1 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and
subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, East Timor's independence
was fully recognized.
North America & North Atlantic
15th century [Atlantic islands]
1420
Madeira
1432
Azores
16th century [Canada]
1500–1579?
Terra Nova (Newfoundland)
1500–1579?
Labrador
1516–1579?
Nova Scotia
South America

South America & Antilles
16th century
1500–1822
Brazil
• 1534–1549
Captaincy Colonies of Brazil
• 1549–1572
Brazil
• 1572–1578
Bahia
• 1572–1578
Rio de Janeiro
• 1578–1607
Brazil
• 1621–1815
Brazil
1536–1620
Barbados
17th century
1621–1751
Maranhão
1680–1777
Nova Colónia do Sacramento
18th century
1751–1772
Grão-Pará and Maranhão
1772–1775
Grão-Pará and Rio Negro
1772–1775
Maranhão and Piauí
19th century
1808–1822
Cisplatina

Cisplatina (Uruguay)
1809–1817
Portuguese Guiana (Amapá)
1822
Upper Peru

Upper Peru (Bolivia)
Coats of arms of Portuguese colonies
Evolution of the Portuguese Empire
Portuguese colonial architecture
Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia
Portuguese colonization of the Americas
Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia
Articles and topics related to the Portuguese Empire
v
t
e
Topics related to the Portuguese monarchy
Major events
Battle of São Mamede
Battle of Ourique
Treaty of Zamora
Manifestis Probatum
1383–85 Crisis
Battle of Aljubarrota
Battle of Alfarrobeira
Battle of Alcácer Quibir
Portuguese succession crisis of 1580
War of the Portuguese Succession
Iberian Union
Forty Conspirators
Portuguese Restoration War
Transfer of the Portuguese Court
Liberal Revolution of 1820
April Revolt
Portuguese Civil War
Municipal Library Elevator Coup
Lisbon

Lisbon Regicide
5 October 1910 revolution
Royalist attack on Chaves
Monarchy of the North
Royal houses
Portuguese House of Burgundy
House of Aviz
House of Habsburg
House of Braganza
House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (disputed)
Royal residences
Ajuda Palace
São Jorge Alcáçova
Belém Palace
Buçaco Palace
Évora Palace
Mafra Palace
Necessidades Palace
Pena Palace
Queluz Palace
Quinta da Boa Vista
Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro Palace
Ramalhão Palace
Ribeira Palace
São Cristóvão Palace
Santa Cruz Estate
Sintra Palace
Vila Viçosa Palace
Miscellaneous
Kingdom of Portugal
Kingdom of the Algarve
Kingdom of Brazil
United Kingdom

United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
Portuguese Monarchs
Line of succession to the former Portuguese throne
Miguelism
Sebastianism
Portuguese Empire
Portuguese Cortes
Portuguese nobility
List of titles and honours of the Portuguese Crown
Council of Portugal
Pantheon of the House of Braganza
Most Faithful Majesty
Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza
.jpg/440px-Jantar_dos_Conjurados.2008_029_(crop).jpg)
Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza (current pretender)
Genealogical tree of the monarchs of Portugal
Portuguese Crown Jewels
Style of the Portuguese sovereign
His Most Faithful Majesty's Council
v
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