Politics in the Syrian Arab Republic takes place in the framework of a presidential republic with nominal multiparty representation in parliament but with most opposition parties suppressed. President Bashar al-Assad, and his Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party have remained dominant forces in the country's politics since the 1970 coup d'état. Until the early stages of the Syrian uprising, the president had broad and unchecked

decree A decree is a legal proclamation, usually issued by a head of state (such as the president of a republic or a monarch), according to certain procedures (usually established in a constitution). It has the force of law. The particular term used ...

authority under a long-standing state of emergency. The end of this emergency was a key demand of the uprising. Superficial reforms in 2011 made presidential decrees subject to approval by the People's Council, the country's legislature, which is itself dominated to parties loyal to the president. The Ba'ath Party is Syria's ruling party and the previous Syrian constitution of 1973 stated that "the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party leads society and the state."Article 8 of the Constitution At least 167 seats of the 250-member parliament were guaranteed for the National Progressive Front, which is a coalition of the Ba'ath Party and several other much smaller allied parties.Syria 101: 4 attributes of Assad's authoritarian regime
- Ariel Zirulnick The Syrian army and security services maintained a considerable presence in the neighbouring

Lebanese Republic Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus lie ...

from 1975 until 24 April 2005.

Background

Hafez al-Assad took power in 1970. After his death in 2000 his son, Bashar al-Assad, succeeded him as president. A surge of interest in political reform took place after Bashar al-Assad assumed power in 2000.

Human-rights Human rights are Morality, moral principles or Social norm, normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for ce ...

activists and other civil-society advocates, as well as some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as the "

Damascus Spring The Damascus Spring ( ar, ربيع دمشق, ) was a period of intense political and social debate in Syria which started after the death of President Hafiz al-Asad in June 2000 and continued to some degree until autumn 2001, when most of the act ...

" (July 2000-February 2001). Assad also made a series of appointments of reform-minded advisors to formal and less formal positions and included a number of similarly oriented individuals in his Cabinet.

Neo-Ba'athism

The Ba'ath platform is proclaimed succinctly in the party's slogan: "Unity, freedom, and socialism." The party is both socialist, advocating state ownership of the means of industrial production and the redistribution of agricultural land (in practice, Syria's nominally socialist economy is effectively a mixed economy, composed of large state enterprises and private small businesses), and revolutionary, dedicated to carrying a pan-Arab revolution to every part of the Arab world. Founded by

Michel Aflaq Michel Aflaq ( ar, ميشيل عفلق, Mīšīl ʿAflaq‎, , 9 January 1910 – 23 June 1989) was a Syrian philosopher, sociologist and Arab nationalist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of Ba'athism and its politi ...

, a Syrian Christian, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, a Syrian Sunni, and

Zaki al-Arsuzi Zaki al-Arsuzi ( ar, زكي الأرسوزي, Zakī al-Arsūzī; June 18992 July 1968) was a Syrian philosopher, philologist, sociologist, historian, and Arab nationalist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of Ba'athism and ...

, an alawite, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, which was dissolved in 1966 following the

1966 Syrian coup d'état The 1966 Syrian coup d'état refers to events between 21 and 23 February during which the government of the Syrian Arab Republic was overthrown and replaced. The ruling National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party were removed from power ...

which led to the establishment of one Iraqi-dominated ba'ath movement and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement. The party embraces secularism and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries, especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Six smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Ba'ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba'ath Party members of the NPF exist as political parties largely in name only and conform strictly to Ba'ath Party and government policies. There were reports in 2000 that the government was considering legislation to expand the NPF to include new parties and several parties previously banned; these changes have not taken place. However, one such party- the

Syrian Social Nationalist Party The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) or is a Syrian nationalist party operating in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. It advocates the establishment of a Greater Syrian nation state spanning the Fertile Crescent, including present ...

- was legalised in 2005. Traditionally, the parties of the NPF accepted the Arab nationalist and nominally socialist ideology of the government. However, the SSNP was the first party that is neither socialist nor Arab nationalist in orientation to be legalised and admitted to the NPF. This has given rise to suggestions that broader ideological perspectives would be afforded some degree of toleration in the future, but this did not occur ethnically-based (Kurdish and Assyrian) parties continue to be repressed, most opposition parties are illegal, and a strict ban on religious parties is still enforced. Syria's Emergency Law was in force from 1963, when the Ba'ath Party came to power, until 21 April 2011 when it was rescinded by Bashar al-Assad (decree 161). The law, justified on the grounds of the continuing war with

Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...

and the threats posed by terrorists, suspended most constitutional protections.

Government administration

Leadership in Damascus: ,

President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university * President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...

, Bashar al-Assad , Ba'ath Party , 17 July 2000 , - ,

Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister i ...

Hussein Arnous Hussein Arnous ( ar, حسين عرنوس, Ḥusain ʿArnūs; born 1953) is a Syrian politician who has served as prime minister of Syria since 11 June 2020. Arnous's appointment was announced by state media shortly after it was reported that Pr ...

, Ba'ath Party , 11 June 2020 Leadership of the Syrian opposition in Idlib: ,

, Salem al-Meslet ,

Independent Independent or Independents may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Artist groups * Independents (artist group), a group of modernist painters based in the New Hope, Pennsylvania, area of the United States during the early 1930s * Independ ...

, 12 July 2021 , - ,

, Abdurrahman Mustafa ,

, 30 June 2019 The previous Syrian constitution of 1973 vested the Ba'ath Party (formally the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party) with leadership functions in the state and society and provided broad powers to the president. The

president President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university * President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...

, approved by

referendum A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...

for a 7-year term, was also Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front. During the

2011–2012 Syrian uprising The early insurgency phase of the Syrian Civil War lasted from late July 2011 to April 2012, and was associated with the rise of armed oppositional militias across Syria and the beginning of armed rebellion against the authorities of the Syrian ...

, a new constitution was put to a referendum. Amongst other changes, it abolished the old article 8 which entrenched the power of the Ba'ath party. The new article 8 reads: "The political system of the state shall be based on the principle of political pluralism, and exercising power democratically through the ballot box". In a new article 88, it introduced presidential elections and limited the term of office for the president to seven years with a maximum of one re-election. The referendum resulted in the adoption of the new constitution, which came into force on 27 February 2012. The president has the right to appoint ministers (

Council of Ministers A council is a group of people who come together to consult, deliberate, or make decisions. A council may function as a legislature, especially at a town, city or county/ shire level, but most legislative bodies at the state/provincial or nati ...

), to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...

personnel. The late President

Hafiz al-Asad Hafez al-Assad ', , (, 6 October 1930 – 10 June 2000) was a Syrian statesman and military officer who served as President of Syria from taking power in 1971 until his death in 2000. He was also Prime Minister of Syria from 1970 to 197 ...

was confirmed by unopposed

plebiscite A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of ...

s five times. His son and current President

Bashar al-Asad Bashar Hafez al-Assad, ', Levantine pronunciation: ; (, born 11 September 1965) is a Syrian politician who is the 19th president of Syria, since 17 July 2000. In addition, he is the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and the ...

, was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. He was confirmed again on 27 May 2007 with 97.6% of the vote Along with the National Progressive Front, the president decides issues of war and peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined. The Syrian constitution of 2012 requires that the president be Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. The judicial system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and

family law Family law (also called matrimonial law or the law of domestic relations) is an area of the law that deals with family matters and domestic relations. Overview Subjects that commonly fall under a nation's body of family law include: * Marriage ...

. The Ba'ath Party emphasizes

socialism Socialism is a left-wing Economic ideology, economic philosophy and Political movement, movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to Private prop ...

and secular Pan-Arabism. Despite the Ba'ath Party's doctrine on building national rather than

ethnic An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancestry, language, history, ...

identity, the issues of ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances still remain important in Syria.

Political parties and elections

The last parliamentary election was on 7 May 2012 and the results were announced on 15 May. The Baath party won an even larger victory than it did in previous elections. They won a majority of around 60% of the 250 parliamentary seats. Previously, the Baath had a majority of just over 50% of the seats in parliament. If one adds in the independent MPs aligned with the Baath Party, the MPs who support the president make up over 90% of the seats in new parliament. The National Unity List, which is dominated by the Syrian Baath Party, won more than 150 seats in the 250 member parliament. Independent individuals won more than 90 seats. Among the newly established opposition parties (established since August 2011), only one single seat was won, namely a seat in Aleppo won by the Syrian Democratic Party, Ahmad Koussa. In addition three representatives of longstanding opposition parties have been elected to Parliament: Qadri Jamil and Ali Haydar from the Front for Change and Liberation, and Amro Osi from the Initiative of Syrian Kurds. , - !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left valign=top, Parties !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=Votes !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=% !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=Seats !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=Seats inside , - , align=left valign=top, National Progressive Front (''al-jabha al-waTaniyyah at-taqaddumiyyah'') , valign="top" rowspan=7, , valign="top" rowspan=7, , valign="top" rowspan=7, 168 , , - , align=left, * Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (''Hizb al-ba'th al-'arabi al-ishtiraki'') , 134 , - , align=left, *

Socialist Unionists The Socialist Unionist Party ( ar, حزب الوحدويين الاشتراكيين ''Al-Wahdawiyyun Al-Ishtirakiyyun'') is a leftist Nasserist political party in Syria. The party was founded in 1962 through a split in the Ba'ath Party. It is part ...

(''al-wahdawiyyun al-ishtirakiyyun'') , 18 , - , align=left, * Communist Party of Syria (''al-Hizb ash-shuyu'i as-suri'', Wissal Farha Bakdash faction) , 8 , - , align=left, * Communist Party of Syria (

Yusuf Faisal Yusuf ( ar, يوسف ') is a male name of Arabic origin meaning " God increases" (in piety, power and influence).From the Hebrew יהוה להוסיף ''YHWH Lhosif'' meaning "YHWH will increase/add". It is the Arabic equivalent of the Hebrew nam ...

faction) , 3 , - , align=left, * National Vow Movement (''Harakat al-'ahd al-waTani'') , 3 , - , align=left, * Arab Socialist Union (''al-ittiHad al-ishtiraki al-'arabi'') , 2 , - , align=left valign=top,

Popular Front for Change and Liberation The Popular Front for Change and Liberation ( ar, الجبهة الشعبية للتحرير والتغيير, ''al-Jabha aš-š‘abiyya li'l-taghayyir wa'l-taḥrīr'') is a coalition of Syrian political parties and is the leader of the official ...

, valign="top" rowspan=3, , valign="top" rowspan=3, , valign="top" rowspan=3, 5 , , - , align=left, *

(''al-Hizb as-suri al-qawmi al-ijtima'i'') , 4 , - , align=left, *

People's Will Party The People's Will Party ( ar, حزب الإرادة الشعبية, translit=Ḥizb al-ʾIrāda aš-Šaʿbiyya) is a political party in Syria. History In 2000, shortly after the convention of the 9th Congress of the Syrian Communist Party, 80% ...

, 1 , - , align=left valign=top, Non-Partisans , valign="top", , , valign="top", , 77 , - , align=left style="background-color:#E9E9E9", Total , width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9", , width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9", , width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9", 250 , width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9", , - , colspan=5 align=left, Source
Syrian parliament

References

External links

Syria
at the

United States Institute of Peace The United States Institute of Peace (USIP) is an American federal institution tasked with promoting conflict resolution and prevention worldwide. It provides research, analysis, and training to individuals in diplomacy, mediation, and other pea ...