Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin (French: [pjɛʁ də
kubɛʁtɛ̃]; born Pierre de Frédy; 1 January 1863 – 2 September
1937, also known as
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin and Baron de Coubertin) was a
French educator and historian, and founder of the International
Olympic Committee, as well as its second President. He is considered
the father of the modern Olympic Games. Born into a French
aristocratic family, he became an academic and studied a broad range
of topics, most notably education and history. He graduated with Law
degree & Public affairs from
Paris

Paris Institute of Political
Studies.[1] It was at
Sciences Po

Sciences Po where he came with the idea of
Summer Olympic Games[2].
The
Pierre de Coubertin medal

Pierre de Coubertin medal (also known as the Coubertin medal or
the True Spirit of
Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship medal) is an award given by the
International Olympic Committee

International Olympic Committee to athletes that demonstrate the
spirit of sportsmanship in the Olympic Games.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Educational philosophy
3 Reviving the Olympic Games
3.1 President of the International Olympic Committee
3.2 Personal Olympic success
4 Scouting
5 Personal life
6 Later life
7 Criticism
8 Legacy
9 List of works
10 Citations
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Early life[edit]
Pierre de Frédy was born in
Paris

Paris on 1 January 1863, into an
aristocratic family.[3] He was the fourth child of Baron Charles Louis
de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin and Marie–Marcelle Gigault de
Crisenoy.[4] Family tradition held that the Frédy name had first
arrived in France in the early 15th century, and the first recorded
title of nobility granted to the family was given by Louis XI to an
ancestor, also named Pierre de Frédy, in 1477. But other branches of
his family tree delved even further into French history, and the
annals of both sides of his family included nobles of various
stations, military leaders and associates of kings and princes of
France.[5]
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin as a child (right), with one of his sisters,
painted by his father Charles Louis de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin
(detail of Le Départ, 1869).
His father Charles was a staunch royalist and accomplished artist
whose paintings were displayed and given prizes at the Parisian salon,
at least in those years when he was not absent in protest of the rise
to power of Louis Napoleon. His paintings often centred on themes
related to the Roman Catholic Church, classicism, and nobility, which
reflected those things he thought most important.[6] In a later
semi-fictional autobiographical piece called Le Roman d'un rallié,
Coubertin describes his relationship with both his mother and his
father as having been somewhat strained during his childhood and
adolescence. His memoirs elaborated further, describing as a pivotal
moment his disappointment upon meeting Henri, Count of Chambord, whom
the elder Coubertin believed to be the rightful king.[7]
Coubertin grew up in a time of profound change in France: France's
defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the
Paris

Paris Commune, and the
establishment of the French Third Republic, and later the Dreyfus
affair.[8] But while these events were the setting of his childhood,
his school experiences were just as formative. In October 1874, his
parents enrolled him in a new Jesuit school called Externat de la rue
de Vienne, which was still under construction for his first five years
there. While many of the school's attendees were day students,
Coubertin boarded at the school under the supervision of a Jesuit
priest, which his parents hoped would instill him with a strong moral
and religious education.[9]> There, he was among the top three
students in his class, and was an officer of the school's elite
academy made up of its best and brightest. This suggests that despite
his rebelliousness at home, Coubertin adapted well to the strict
rigors of a Jesuit education.[10]
As an aristocrat, Coubertin had a number of career paths from which to
choose, including potentially prominent roles in the military or
politics. But he chose instead to pursue a career as an intellectual,
studying and later writing on a broad range of topics, including
education, history, literature and sociology.[3]
Educational philosophy[edit]
The subject which he seems to have been most deeply interested in was
education, and his study focused in particular on physical education
and the role of sport in schooling. In 1883, he visited England for
the first time, and studied the program of physical education
instituted by
Thomas Arnold

Thomas Arnold at the Rugby School. Coubertin credited
these methods with leading to the expansion of British power during
the 19th century and advocated their use in French institutions. The
inclusion of physical education in the curriculum of French schools
would become an ongoing pursuit and passion of Coubertin's.[3]
Coubertin is thought to have exaggerated the importance of sport to
Thomas Arnold, whom he viewed as "one of the founders of athletic
chivalry". The character-reforming influence of sport with which
Coubertin was so impressed is more likely to have originated in the
novel
Tom Brown's School Days

Tom Brown's School Days rather than exclusively in the ideas of
Arnold himself. Nonetheless, Coubertin was an enthusiast in need of a
cause and he found it in England and in Thomas Arnold.[11] "Thomas
Arnold, the leader and classic model of English educators," wrote
Coubertin, "gave the precise formula for the role of athletics in
education. The cause was quickly won. Playing fields sprang up all
over England".[12]
Intrigued by what he had read about English public schools, in 1883,
at the age of twenty, Fredy went to Rugby and to other English schools
to see for himself. He described the results in a book, L'Education en
Angleterre, which was published in
Paris

Paris in 1888. This hero of his
book is Thomas Arnold, and on his second visit in 1886, Coubertin
reflected on Arnold's influence in the chapel at Rugby School.[13]
What Coubertin saw on the playing fields of Rugby and the other
English schools he visited was how "organised sport can create moral
and social strength".[14] Not only did organised games help to set the
mind and body in equilibrium, it also prevented the time being wasted
in other ways. First developed by the ancient Greeks, it was an
approach to education that he felt the rest of the world had forgotten
and to whose revival he was to dedicate the rest of his life.
As a historian and a thinker on education, Coubertin romanticised
ancient Greece. Thus, when he began to develop his theory of physical
education, he naturally looked to the example set by the Athenian idea
of the gymnasium, a training facility that simultaneously encouraged
physical and intellectual development. He saw in these gymnasia what
he called a triple unity between old and young, between disciplines,
and between different types of people, meaning between those whose
work was theoretical and those whose work was practical. Coubertin
advocated for these concepts, this triple unity, to be incorporated
into schools.[15]
But while Coubertin was certainly a romantic, and while his idealised
vision of ancient
Greece

Greece would lead him later to the idea of reviving
the Olympic Games, his advocacy for physical education was based on
practical concerns as well. He believed that men who received physical
education would be better prepared to fight in wars, and better able
to win conflicts like the Franco-Prussian War, in which France had
been humiliated. He also saw sport as democratic, in that sports
competition crossed class lines, although it did so without causing a
mingling of classes, which he did not support.[15]
Unfortunately for Coubertin, his efforts to incorporate more physical
education into French schools failed. The failure of this endeavour,
however, was closely followed by the development of a new idea, the
revival of the ancient Olympic Games, the creation of a festival of
international athleticism.[15]
He was the referee of the first ever French championship rugby union
final on 20 March 1892, between
Racing Club de France

Racing Club de France and Stade
Français.[16]
Reviving the Olympic Games[edit]
Main article: Olympic Games
Coubertin is the instigator of the modern Olympic movement, a man
whose vision and political skill led to the revival of the Olympic
Games which had been practised in antiquity.[3] Coubertin idealized
the
Olympic Games

Olympic Games as the ultimate ancient athletic competition.[15]
Thomas Arnold, the Head Master of Rugby School, was an important
influence on Coubertin's thoughts about education, but his meetings
with Dr.
William Penny Brookes

William Penny Brookes also influenced his thinking about
athletic competition to some extent. A trained physician, Brookes
believed that the best way to prevent illness was through physical
exercise. In 1850, he had initiated a local athletic competition that
he referred to as "Meetings of the Olympian Class"[17] at the Gaskell
recreation ground at Much Wenlock, Shropshire.[18] Along with the
Liverpool Athletic Club, who began holding their own Olympic Festival
in the 1860s, Brookes created a National Olympian Association which
aimed to encourage such local competition in cities across Britain.
These efforts were largely ignored by the British sporting
establishment. Brookes also maintained communication with the
government and sporting advocates in Greece, seeking a revival of the
Olympic Games

Olympic Games internationally under the auspices of the Greek
government.[19] There, the philanthropist cousins Evangelos and
Konstantinos Zappas

Konstantinos Zappas had used their wealth to fund Olympics within
Greece, and paid for the restoration of the
Panathinaiko Stadium

Panathinaiko Stadium that
was later used during the 1896 Summer Olympics.[20] The efforts of
Brookes to encourage the internationalization of these games came to
naught.[21] However, Dr. Brookes did organize a national Olympic Games
in London, at Crystal Palace, in 1866 and this was the first Olympics
to resemble an
Olympic Games

Olympic Games to be held outside of Greece.[22] But
while others had created Olympic contests within their countries, and
broached the idea of international competition, it was Coubertin whose
work would lead to the establishment of the International Olympic
Committee and the organisation of the first modern Olympic Games.[20]
In 1888, Coubertin founded the Comité pour la Propagation des
Exercises Physiques more well known as the Comité Jules Simon.
Coubertin's earliest reference to the modern notion of Olympic Games
criticizes the idea.[23] The idea for reviving the
Olympic Games

Olympic Games as an
international competition came to Coubertin in 1889, apparently
independently of Brookes, and he spent the following five years
organizing an international meeting of athletes and sports enthusiasts
that might make it happen.[15] Dr Brookes had organised a national
Olympic Games

Olympic Games that was held at Crystal Palace in London in 1866.[22]
In response to a newspaper appeal, Brookes wrote to Coubertin in 1890,
and the two began an exchange of letters on education and sport.
Although he was too old to attend the 1894 Congress, Brookes would
continue to support Coubertin's efforts, most importantly by using his
connections with the Greek government to seek its support in the
endeavour. While Brookes' contribution to the revival of the Olympic
Games was recognised in Britain at the time, Coubertin in his later
writings largely neglected to mention the role the Englishman played
in their development.[24] He did mention the roles of Evangelis Zappas
and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas, but drew a distinction between
their founding of athletic Olympics and his own role in the creation
of an international contest.[20] However, Coubertin together with A.
Mercatis, a close friend of Konstantinos, encouraged the Greek
government to utilise part of Konstantinos' legacy to fund the 1896
Athens
Olympic Games

Olympic Games separately and in addition to the legacy of
Evangelis Zappas that Konstantinos had been executor of.[25][26][27]
Moreover,
George Averoff

George Averoff was invited by the Greek government to fund
the second refurbishment of the
Panathinaiko Stadium

Panathinaiko Stadium that had already
been fully funded by Evangelis Zappas forty years earlier.[28]
Coubertin's advocacy for the Games centred on a number of ideals about
sport. He believed that the early ancient Olympics encouraged
competition among amateur rather than professional athletes, and saw
value in that. The ancient practice of a sacred truce in association
with the Games might have modern implications, giving the Olympics a
role in promoting peace. This role was reinforced in Coubertin's mind
by the tendency of athletic competition to promote understanding
across cultures, thereby lessening the dangers of war. In addition, he
saw the Games as important in advocating his philosophical ideal for
athletic competition: that the competition itself, the struggle to
overcome one's opponent, was more important than winning.[29]
Coubertin expressed this ideal thus:
L'important dans la vie ce n'est point le triomphe, mais le combat,
l'essentiel ce n'est pas d'avoir vaincu mais de s'être bien battu.
The important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle, the
essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well.
As Coubertin prepared for his Congress, he continued to develop a
philosophy of the Olympic Games. While he certainly intended the Games
to be a forum for competition between amateur athletes, his conception
of amateurism was complex. By 1894, the year the Congress was held, he
publicly criticised the type of amateur competition embodied in
English rowing contests, arguing that its specific exclusion of
working-class athletes was wrong. While he believed that athletes
should not be paid to be such, he did think that compensation was in
order for the time when athletes were competing and would otherwise
have been earning money. Following the establishment of a definition
for an amateur athlete at the 1894 Congress, he would continue to
argue that this definition should be amended as necessary, and as late
as 1909 would argue that the Olympic movement should develop its
definition of amateurism gradually.[30]
Along with the development of an Olympic philosophy, Coubertin
invested time in the creation and development of a national
association to coordinate athletics in France, the Union des
Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques (USFSA). In 1889, French
athletics associations had grouped together for the first time and
Coubertin founded a monthly magazine La Revue Athletique, the first
French periodical devoted exclusively to athletics[31] and modelled on
The Athlete, an English journal established around 1862.[32] Formed by
seven sporting societies with approximately 800 members, by 1892 the
association had expanded to 62 societies with 7,000 members.[33]
That November, at the annual meeting of the USFSA, Coubertin first
publicly suggested the idea of reviving the Olympics. His speech met
general applause, but little commitment to the Olympic ideal he was
advocating for, perhaps because sporting associations and their
members tended to focus on their own area of expertise and had little
identity as sportspeople in a general sense. This disappointing result
was prelude to a number of challenges he would face in organising his
international conference. In order to develop support for the
conference, he began to play down its role in reviving Olympic Games
and instead promoted it as a conference on amateurism in sport which,
he thought, was slowly being eroded by betting and sponsorships. This
led to later suggestions that participants were convinced to attend
under false pretenses. Little interest was expressed by those he spoke
to during trips to the
United States

United States in 1893 and London in 1894, and
an attempt to involve the Germans angered French gymnasts who did not
want the Germans invited at all. Despite these challenges, the USFSA
continued its planning for the games, adopting in its first program
for the meeting eight articles to address, only one of which had to do
with the Olympics. A later program would give the Olympics a much more
prominent role in the meeting.[34]
The congress was held on 23 June 1894 at the
Sorbonne

Sorbonne in Paris. Once
there, participants divided the congress into two commissions, one on
amateurism and the other on reviving the Olympics. A Greek
participant, Demetrius Vikelas, was appointed to head the commission
on the Olympics, and would later become the first President of the
International Olympic Committee. Along with Coubertin, C. Herbert of
Britain's
Amateur Athletic Association

Amateur Athletic Association and W.M. Sloane of the United
States helped lead the efforts of the commission. In its report, the
commission proposed that
Olympic Games

Olympic Games be held every four years and
that the program for the Games be one of modern rather than ancient
sports. They also set the date and location for the first modern
Olympic Games, the
1896 Summer Olympics

1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, and the
second, the
1900 Summer Olympics

1900 Summer Olympics in Paris. Coubertin had originally
opposed the choice of Greece, as he had concerns about the ability of
a weakened Greek state to host the competition, but was convinced by
Vikelas to support the idea. The commission's proposals were accepted
unanimously by the congress, and the modern Olympic movement was
officially born. The proposals of the other commission, on amateurism,
were more contentious, but this commission also set important
precedents for the Olympic Games, specifically the use of heats to
narrow participants and the banning of prize money in most
contests.[35]
Following the Congress, the institutions created there began to be
formalized into the
International Olympic Committee

International Olympic Committee (IOC), with
Demetrius Vikelas

Demetrius Vikelas as its first President. The work of the IOC
increasingly focused on the planning the 1896 Athens Games, and de
Coubertin played a background role as Greek authorities took the lead
in logistical organisation of the Games in
Greece

Greece itself, offering
technical advice such as a sketch of a design of a velodrome to be
used in cycling competitions. He also took the lead in planning the
program of events, although to his disappointment neither polo,
football, or boxing were included in 1896.[36] The Greek organizing
committee had been informed that four foreign football teams were to
participate however not one foreign football team showed up and
despite Greek preparations for a football tournament it was cancelled
during the Games.[37]
The Greek authorities were frustrated that he could not provide an
exact estimate of the number of attendees more than a year in advance.
In France, Coubertin's efforts to elicit interest in the Games among
athletes and the press met difficulty, largely because the
participation of German athletes angered French nationalists who
begrudged Germany their victory in the Franco-Prussian War. Germany
also threatened not to participate after rumours spread that Coubertin
had sworn to keep Germany out, but following a letter to the Kaiser
denying the accusation, the German National Olympic Committee decided
to attend. Coubertin himself was frustrated by the Greeks, who
increasingly ignored him in their planning and who wanted to continue
to hold the Games in Athens every four years, against de Coubertin's
wishes. The conflict was resolved after he suggested to the King of
Greece

Greece that he hold pan-Hellenic games in between Olympiads, an idea
which the King accepted, although Coubertin would receive some angry
correspondence even after the compromise was reached and the King did
not mention him at all during the banquet held in honour of foreign
athletes during the 1896 Games.[38]
Coubertin took over the IOC presidency when
Demetrius Vikelas

Demetrius Vikelas stepped
down after the Olympics in his own country. Despite the initial
success, the Olympic Movement faced hard times, as the 1900 (in De
Coubertin's own Paris) and 1904 Games were both swallowed by World's
Fairs in the same cities, and received little attention. The Paris
Games were not organised by Coubertin or the IOC nor were they called
Olympics at that time. The St. Louis Games was hardly
internationalized and was an embarrassment.[39]
President of the International Olympic Committee[edit]
The 1906 Summer Olympics revived the momentum, and the Olympic Games
have come to be regarded as the world's foremost sports
competition.[40] Coubertin created the modern pentathlon for the 1912
Olympics, and subsequently stepped down from his IOC presidency after
the 1924 Olympics in Paris, which proved much more successful than the
first attempt in that city in 1900. He was succeeded as president, in
1925, by Belgian Henri de Baillet-Latour.
Personal Olympic success[edit]
Coubertin won the gold medal for literature at the 1912 Summer
Olympics for his poem Ode to Sport.[41]
Scouting[edit]
In 1911,
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin founded the inter-religious Scouting
organisation aka Éclaireurs Français (EF) in France, which later
merged to form the Éclaireuses et Éclaireurs de France.[citation
needed]
Personal life[edit]
In 1895
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin had married Marie Rothan, the daughter of
family friends. Their son Jacques (1896–1952) became ill after being
in the sun too long when he was a little child. Their daughter Renée
(1902–1968) suffered emotional disturbances and never married. Marie
and Pierre tried to console themselves with two nephews, but they were
killed at the front in World War I. Coubertin died of a heart attack
in Geneva,
Switzerland

Switzerland on 2 September 1937. Marie died in
1963.[42][43][44]
Later life[edit]
Pierre was the last person to the family name. In the words of his
biographer John MacAloon, "The last of his lineage, Pierre de
Coubertin was the only member of it whose fame would outlive him."[45]
Criticism[edit]
Statue at Lausanne
A number of scholars have criticized Coubertin's legacy. David C.
Young believes that Coubertin's assertion that ancient Olympic
athletes were amateurs was incorrect.[46] The issue is the subject of
scholarly debate. Young and others argue that the athletes of the
ancient Games were professional, while opponents led by Pleket argue
that the earliest Olympic athletes were in fact amateur, and that the
Games only became professionalized after about 480 BC. Coubertin
agreed with this latter view, and saw this professionalization as
undercutting the morality of the competition.[47]
Further, Young asserts that the effort to limit international
competition to amateur athletes, which Coubertin was a part of, was in
fact part of efforts to give the upper classes greater control over
athletic competition, removing such control from the working classes.
Coubertin may have played a role in such a movement, but his defenders
argue that he did so unconscious of any class repercussions.[29]
However, it is clear that his romanticized vision of the Olympic Games
was fundamentally different from that described in the historical
record. For example, Coubertin's idea that participation is more
important than winning ("L'important c'est de participer") is at odds
with the ideals of the Greeks. The Apostle Paul, writing in the first
century to Christians in the city of
Corinth

Corinth where the Isthmian Games
were held, reflects this in his writings when he says, "Do you not
know that in a race all the runners run, but only one gets the prize?
Run in such a way as to get the prize", (1 Corinthians 9:24).
Coubertin's assertion that the Games were the impetus for peace was
also an exaggeration; the peace which he spoke of only existed to
allow athletes to travel safely to Olympia, and neither prevented the
outbreak of wars nor ended ongoing ones.[29]
Scholars have critiqued the idea that athletic competition might lead
to greater understanding between cultures and, therefore, to peace.
Christopher Hill claims that modern participants in the Olympic
movement may defend this particular belief, "in a spirit similar to
that in which the Church of England remains attached to the
Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, which a Priest in that Church must
sign." In other words, that they may not wholly believe it but hold to
it for historical reasons.[30]
Questions have also been raised about the veracity of Coubertin's
account of his role in the planning of the 1896 Athens Games.
Reportedly, Coubertin played little role in planning, despite
entreaties by Vikelas. Young suggests that the story about Coubertin's
having sketched the velodrome were untrue, and that he had in fact
given an interview in which he suggested he did not want Germans to
participate. Coubertin later denied this.[48]
Legacy[edit]
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin on a 2013 Russian stamp from the series "Sports
Legends"
The Olympic motto Citius, Altius, Fortius (Faster, Higher, Stronger)
was proposed by Coubertin in 1894 and has been official since 1924.
The motto was coined by
Henri Didon OP, a friend of Coubertin, for a
Paris

Paris youth gathering of 1891.[49][50]
The
Pierre de Coubertin medal

Pierre de Coubertin medal (also known as the Coubertin medal or
the True Spirit of
Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship medal) is an award given by the
International Olympic Committee

International Olympic Committee to those athletes that demonstrate the
spirit of sportsmanship in the Olympic Games. This medal is considered
by many athletes and spectators to be the highest award that an
Olympic athlete can receive, even greater than a gold medal. The
International Olympic Committee

International Olympic Committee considers it as its highest
honour.[51]
A minor planet, 2190 Coubertin, was discovered in 1976 by Soviet
astronomer
Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh and is named in his
honour.[52]
The street where the Olympic Stadium in Montreal is located (which
hosted the 1976 Summer Olympic Games) was named after Pierre de
Coubertin, giving the stadium the address 4549 Pierre de Coubertin
Avenue. It is the only Olympic Stadium in the world that lies on a
street named after Coubertin. There are also two schools in Montreal
named after Pierre de Coubertin.
He was portrayed by
Louis Jourdan

Louis Jourdan in the 1984
NBC

NBC miniseries, The
First Olympics: Athens 1896.
In 2007, he was inducted into the
IRB Hall of Fame for his services to
the sport of rugby union.
List of works[edit]
This is a listing of Pierre de Coubertin's books. In addition to
these, he wrote numerous articles for journals and magazines:[53][54]
Une Campagne de 21 ans. Paris: Librairie de l'Éducation Physique.
1908.
La Chronique de France (7 vols.). Auxerre and Paris: Lanier.
1900–1906.
L'Éducation anglaise en France. Paris: Hachette. 1889.
L'Éducation en Angleterre. Paris: Hachette. 1888.
Essais de psychologie sportive. Lausanne: Payot. 1913.
L'Évolution française sous la Troisième République. Paris:
Hachette. 1896.
France Since 1814. New York: Macmillan. 1900. Retrieved 27 February
2018 – via Internet Archive.
La Gymnastique utilitaire. Paris: Alcan. 1905.
Histoire universelle (4 vols.). Aix-en-Provence: Société de
l'histoire universelle. 1919.
Mémoires olympiques. Lausanne: Bureau international de pédagogie
sportive. 1931.
Notes sur l'éducation publique. Paris: Hachette. 1901.
Pages d'histoire contemporaine. Paris: Plon. 1908.
Pédagogie sportive. Paris: Crés. 1922.
Le Respect Mutuel. Paris: Alean. 1915.
Souvenirs d'Amérique et de Grèce. Paris: Hachette. 1897.
Universités transatlantiques. Paris: Hachette. 1890.
Citations[edit]
^ "128 ans plus tard...
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin de retour à Sciences Po".
Sciences Po

Sciences Po Executive Education (in French). Retrieved
2018-01-29.
^ "Les archives
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin rejoignent Sciences Po". Archimag
(in French). Retrieved 2018-01-29.
^ a b c d Hill 1996, p. 5.
^ "Ancestry of Pierre de Coubertin". Roglo.eu. Retrieved 9 October
2011.
^ MacAloon 1981, pp. 8–10.
^ MacAloon 1981, pp. 17–19.
^ MacAloon 1981, pp. 24–28.
^ MacAloon 1981, p. 21.
^ MacAloon 1981, pp. 32–33.
^ MacAloon 1981, p. 37.
^ Beard, Richard (2004). Muddied Oafs, The Soul of Rugby. London:
Yellow Jersey Press. ISBN 0224063944.
^ Physical exercises in the modern world. Lecture given at the
Sorbonne, November 1892.
^ Pierre de Coubertin, Une Campagne de 21 Ans 1887–1908 (Librairie
de l'education physique, Paris: 1909)
^ Pierre de Coubertin. The Olympic Idea. Discourses and Essays.
Editions Internationales Olympiques, Lausanne, 1970.
^ a b c d e Hill 1996, p. 6.
^ "Rugby in the Olympics:History". Archived from the original on 10
August 2011.
^ A Brief History of the
Olympic Games

Olympic Games by David C. Young, p. 144.
Blackwell Publishing. 2004. ISBN 1-4051-1130-5
^ Hill 1996, p. 11.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 12–13.
^ a b c Hill 1996, p. 18.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 12-13.
^ a b Young 1996, p. 36.
^ Young 1996, pp. 73–74.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 13–15.
^ Young 1996, p. 117.
^ Memoire sur le conflit entre la Grèce et la Roumanie concernant
l'affaire Zappa Athens 1893, by F. Martens
^ Streit, G. (1894). 'L'affaire Zappa. Paris. Retrieved 19 October
2016 – via Internet Archive.
^ Young 1996, p. 14.
^ a b c Hill 1996, pp. 7-8.
^ a b Hill 1996, p. 8.
^ "Randonneurs Ontario, Profile of Pierre Giffard".
Randonneursontario.ca. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ "Féchain Athlétique Club, Association loi 1901-Affiliation à la
Fédération Française d'athlétisme, Histoire". Home.nordnet.fr. 31
December 1982. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010.
Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^ Hill 1996, p. 14.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 18–20.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 20–22.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 23–26.
^ Young 1996, p. 139.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 25–28.
^ Young 1996, p. 166.
^ "Overview of Olympic Games". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4
June 2008.
^ Gjerde, Arild; Jeroen Heijmans; Bill Mallon; Hilary Evans (2011).
"Pierre, Baron de Coubertin Biography and Olympic Results". Olympics.
Sports Reference.com. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
^ "Pierre, Baron de Coubertin Bio, Stats, and Results".
^ John E. Findling, Kimberly D. Pelle Historical Dictionary of the
Modern Olympic Movement, 1996, p.356
^ "Pierre de Coubertin" (PDF). International Olympic Committee.
p. 1. Retrieved 19 October 2016.
^ MacAloon 1981, p. 12.
^ Hill 1996, pp. 6–7.
^ Hill 1996, p. 7.
^ Hill 1996, p. 28.
^ Schneller? Höher? Stärker? johannes-hospiz.de
^ "Opening Ceremony" (pdf). International Olympics Committee. 2002.
p. 3. Retrieved 23 August 2012. ; "Sport athlétique", 14
March 1891: "[...] dans une éloquente allocution il a souhaité que
ce drapeau les conduise 'souvent à la victoire, à la lutte
toujours'. Il a dit qu'il leur donnait pour devise ces trois mots qui
sont le fondement et la raison d'être des sports athlétiques:
citius, altius, fortius, ‘plus vite, plus haut, plus fort’.",
cited in Hoffmane, Simone La carrière du père Didon, Dominicain.
1840 – 1900, Doctoral thesis, Université de
Paris

Paris IV – Sorbonne,
1985, p. 926; cf. Michaela Lochmann, Les fondements pédagogiques de
la devise olympique „citius, altius, fortius“
^ Picard, Caroline (17 August 2016). "There's a 4th Kind of Olympic
Medal and Only a Few People Have It: Yes, there's something better
than gold". Town and Country. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names (5th
ed.). New York: Springer Verlag. p. 178.
ISBN 3-540-00238-3.
^ MacAloon 1981, pp. 340–342.
^ Full bibliography of Сoubertin's writings Archived 6 July 2011 at
the Wayback Machine.. coubertin.ch
References[edit]
Hill, Christopher R. (1996). Olympic Politics. Manchester University
Press ND. ISBN 0-7190-4451-0.
MacAloon, John J. (1981). This Great Symbol:
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin and
the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-50000-4.
Young, David C. (1996). The Modern Olympics, A Struggle for Revival.
Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0-8018-5374-5.
Further reading[edit]
Pierre de Coubertin, Olympism: selected writings, edited by Norbert
Muller, Lausanne, IOC, 2000
Macaloon, John J (2007) [1981]. This Great Symbol. Pierre de Coubertin
and the Origins of the Modern
Olympic Games

Olympic Games (New ed.). University of
Chicago Press. Routledge. ISBN 041549494X.
ISBN 978-0415494946.
"This Great Symbol:
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of the Modern
Olympic Games". International Journal of the History of Sport. 23 (3
& 4). 2006. Retrieved 19 October 2016 – via Taylor &
Francis. (Subscription required (help)).
Smith, Michael Llewellyn (2004). Olympics in Athens 1896: The
Invention of the Modern Olympic Games. London: Profile Books Ltd.
ISBN 186197342X. ISBN 9781861973429.
Stephan Wassong, Pierre de Coubertin's American studies and their
importance for the analysis of his early educational campaign. Web
publishing on LA84 Foundation. 2004.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Pierre de Coubertin
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pierre de Coubertin.
The International Pierre De Coubertin Committee (CIPC) – Lausanne
Coubertin reader of Flaubert
The Wenlock Olympian Society
Discourse of
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin at
Sorbonne

Sorbonne announcing the restoring
of the Olympic games (in french, audio)
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin at Find a Grave
Civic offices
Preceded by
Demetrius Vikelas
President of the International Olympic Committee
1896–1925
Succeeded by
Henri de Baillet-Latour
Godefroy de Blonay
.jpg/440px-Godefroy_de_Blonay_(Bain_Collection).jpg)
Godefroy de Blonay (Unofficial)
Preceded by
first
President of Organizing Committee for Winter Olympic Games
1924
Succeeded by
Edmund Schulthess
Preceded by
Henri de Baillet-Latour
President of Organizing Committee for Summer Olympic Games
1924
Succeeded by
Solko van den Bergh
Preceded by
Constantine I of Greece
President of Organizing Committee for Summer Olympic Games
1900
Succeeded by
David Rowland Francis
v
t
e
Presidents of the International Olympic Committee
Demetrius Vikelas

Demetrius Vikelas (1894–1896)
Pierre de Coubertin

Pierre de Coubertin (1896–1925)
Godefroy de Blonay
.jpg/440px-Godefroy_de_Blonay_(Bain_Collection).jpg)
Godefroy de Blonay (1916–1919, acting president)
Henri de Baillet-Latour

Henri de Baillet-Latour (1925–1942)
Sigfrid Edström

Sigfrid Edström (acting 1942–1946, elected 1946–1952)
Avery Brundage

Avery Brundage (1952–1972)
Michael Morris (1972–1980)
Juan Antonio Samaranch

Juan Antonio Samaranch (1980–2001)
Jacques Rogge

Jacques Rogge (2001–2013)
Thomas Bach
.jpg/400px-Thomas_Bach_(13951010204).jpg)
Thomas Bach (2013–present)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 49251918
LCCN: n80111162
ISNI: 0000 0000 8228 3147
GND: 118522418
SELIBR: 395551
SUDOC: 029212766
BNF: cb12088638c (data)
BIBSYS: 90734536
HDS: 14010
NLA: 36060275
NDL: 00436727
NKC: jn19990001509
BNE: XX896600
CiNii: DA0252998X
SNAC: w60892rp
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