History
Development
Massachusett Pidgin is recorded as early as 1624, when references to it appear in the colonial records. With exception of Mobilian Jargon, most of the auxiliary languages that developed in North America are thought to have been brought about by contact with Europeans. There are several factors in place that make it very likely that the language pre-dated European arrival. The Massachusett people were once a numerically dominant people of the region, with a large population supported by the fertile lands of the coastal plain and ample access to riparian and ocean food resources. With a strong population, the Massachusett ''sachem''s were head of a loose alliance of peoples, covering all the Massachusett-speaking peoples, the Nipmuc and even the unclassified peoples of the Pioneer Valley before their numbers were felled by the leptospirosis outbreak circa 1619 and subsequent virgin soil epidemics and the large numbers of English colonists that usurped their land and competed with them for resources. Massachusett was spoken by several peoples, including not only the Massachusett, but also the Pawtucket, Wampanoag, Nauset and Coweset peoples. It was mutually intelligible with the other Southern New England Algonquian languages (SNEA), spoken in southern New England and parts of Long Island, and related to but not mutually intelligible with the Abenakian languages spoken to the north and the Delawaran languages to the west and southwest of the SNEA region. Massachusett Pidgin and Massachusett Pidgin English are of interest to scholars of the English language and language contact, as most of the Algonquian loan words adopted from the peoples of New England were adopted through these languages and not directly from Massachusett.Colonial attestation
The existence of Massachusett Pidgin is only inferred from colonial sources. Edward Winslow, who served as governor of the Plymouth Colony, had developed a close relationship with the Wampanoag ''sachem'' Massasoit and other local Wampanoag leaders and was one of a handful of the Pilgrims that had any command of the local 'Indian language.' In Winslow's 1624 publication ''Good News from New England'', he describes a situation where his party of Pilgrim men came across some Wampanoag men they knew and were able to communicate, but when the Wampanoag spoke to each other, it was incomprehensible.Goddard, I. (2000). pp. 33-34. Winslow later on recalls the visit of the Massachusett ''sachem'' Chickatawbut. After exchanging pleasantries with the Winslow and the other representatives of the Plymouth Colony, the conversation between the ''sachem''s was not understood by Winslow save a few words. Similar accounts are recorded by the Dutch and Swedish colonists of what is now the Mid-Atlantic States and the traditional homeland of the Lenape peoples. Like Winslow, the Dutch and Swedish settlers thought they were speaking the local language, but were actually speaking pidgin varieties thereof. Massachusett Pidgin spread with the fur trade, allowing Indians to communicate with northern and interior tribes and exchange items for beaver pelts, which were highly prized by the English settlers. As beaver became scarce in southern New England, the Indian traders and hunters had to trek further to obtain the desired pelts, likely taking the easy to learn and somewhat intelligible Massachusett Pidgin. As the English settlers were not interested in learning the local language, and the Indians, outnumbered by English settlers, needed English to trade and participate in wider society, switched over to Massachusett Pidgin English, essentially Massachusett Pidgin with heavy English relexification. The Native peoples of New England continued to use their local dialect or language such as Massachusett, Massachusett Pidgin and Massachusett Pidgin English to communicate. Dual use of these by the Native peoples is recorded as early as 1651 in Connecticut, where trade was conducted on English colonial merchantmen with Indian interpreters possibly code-switching between Massachusett Pidgin and Massachusett Pidgin. Similarly, a court trial involving an Indian accused of stealing a hog was shown a hog's head and told (''tâtapaw y8'') , 'similar to this,' and in Massachusett Pidgin '' in Massachusett Pidgin English in 1704.Decline
The Massachusett speaking peoples also adopted English, albeit imperfectly with heavy influences of Massachusett grammar and some vocabulary. The use of the Massachusett language declined in Massachusett communities in the 1750s and the 1770s in the Wampanoag communities as Massachusett Pidgin English, and later English, began to overtake the Native languages. This was part due to assimilation pressures, increased rates of intermarriage with Blacks and Whites outside the speech community and This co-existed with the usage of Massachusett Pidgin, but as English became more and more necessary to trade and participate in society, and the new settlers were less eager to bother to learn the 'Indian language,' Massachusett Pidgin was rapidly eclipsed by the sole use of Massachusett Pidgin English.Bragdon, K. J. (1981). 'Linguistic acculturation in Massachusett: 1663-1771' in ''Papers of the 12th Algonquian Conference''. Cowan, W. (ed.) Ottawa, ON: Carleton University. Massachusett Pidgin may have influenced the late-stage of the Massachusett language, and many of the small number of words recorded by Speck when he visited the elderly members of the Mashpee Wampanoag tribe in the 1920s, many were actually Massachusett Pidgin derivations. The Massachusett language went extinct at the end of the nineteenth century, with the death of the last native speakers of Aquinnah, but the language had already declined as the primary language of the Indian communities in the 1770s.Lexicon
Massachusett
Most of the vocabulary is drawn from the Massachusett language, although Massachusett Pidgin does feature some shortened expressions and word compounds that would not be permissible in the normal spoken language. As the majority of the lexicon is derived from Massachusett, it is assumed that speakers, especially the Natives themselves, pronounced the words according to the rules of Massachusett phonology. * ,Goodard, I. (2000). p. 72. 'I' or 'me,' from Massachusett ()Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 26. , 'I' or 'me.' * ''nux'',Bailey, R. W. (2012). p. 34. 'yes,' from Massachusett () , 'yes.' * ''squaw'', 'woman' or 'female,' from Massachusett () , 'woman' or 'female.' * ''matta'', 'no' or 'not,' from Massachusett () , 'no' or 'not.' * ''tatapa you'', 'the same as this,' from Massachusett ()Hicks, N. (2007). p. 40. , 'it is similar (to something) this (thing)' or 'the same as this.' Cf. Massachusett () , 'it is alike.' * ''tatta'', 'I do not know' or 'I do not have,' likely from Massachusett Trumbull, J. H. (1903). p. 159. Cf. Narragansett and . Reduplication of ''toh.''(), itself a reduplication of (), a particle used to indicate the optative, or 'wishing,' mood or doubt. * ''nocake'', 'parched cornmeal,' from Massachusett () , '(cornmeal) that which is softened.' * ''squaw-sachem'', 'queen,' 'female chief,' 'wife of chief,' from Massachusett () and () , 'chief.' Proper Massachusett term is () , 'queen,' 'female chief' or 'wife of chief,' literally 'leaderwoman.' * ''netop'', 'friend,' from Massachusett () , 'my friend.' * ''wunnekin'',Bailey, R. W. (2012). p. 35. 'good,' from Massachusett () , 'it is good.' * ''wampumpeag'', 'money,' from Massachusett () , 'white shell beads.' The colonists mistakenly thought the strung beads of wampum were currency. Shortened to ''wampum'' *() and ''peag'' *() in usage by the English settlers.Other Algonquian
A handful of common words were either borrowings from other Algonquian languages or were archaic retentions that were better understood by other peoples. For instance, although the Massachusett Pidgin ''sanomp'' is also found in the Massachusett-language documents, it was likely a Massachusett Pidgin borrowing from an Abenakian language, and appears as in Western Abenaki. * ''wigwam'', 'house' or 'home.' Possibly Abenakian, cf. Western Abenaki . Massachusett form is () . Pidgin form probably pronounced as *() . Possibly an archaic retention, both ''wigwam'' and ''wetu'' derive from Proto-Algonquian * Although ''wetu'' was also known, ''wigwam'' won as the general word and one that still has currency. * ''sanomp'', 'man' or 'married man.' Possibly Abenakian, cf. Western Abenaki . Although occurs in Massachusett as (), it is rare compared to more common () , 'man.' * ''sagamore'', 'chief' or 'leader.' Possibly Abenakian, cf. Western Abenaki . Massachusett Pidgin form, pronounced like *() , contrasts with Massachusett form is (). Both ''sagamore'' and ''sachem'' derive from Proto-Algonquian * * ''pappoose'', 'baby.' Possibly from Narragansett . Massachusett form is (}) }. Compare Mohegan-Pequot .English
As Massachusett Pidgin was often used to communicate with the English settlers, it naturally incorporated numerous English terms. Hundreds of words were adopted into Massachusett from English, mainly for the new crops, domesticated animals, tools, material culture and religion of the English settlers. Many items of the English quickly became prized items of trade. Although it is uncertain to what extant these words were used in Massachusett Pidgin, the words listed below were known to have been absorbed into the Massachusett language. Due to the reduced phonemic inventory of Massachusett, most words were approximated to their closest Massachusett equivalent sounds. English and were often replaced by due to interference from N-SNEA dialect pronunciation, as Massachusett speakers were familiar with neighboring languages where cognate words with /r/ and /l/ became /n/ in Massachusett. As consonant clusters were limited, an epenthetic vowel was often inserted to ease pronunciation. English words were also overtly marked with the Massachusett declensional pronoun and verb conjugation system, producing hybrid forms. * ''pigsack'', 'pigs,' from English 'pigs' (pl) and Massachusett animate plural () . Possibly pronounced * or *. * ''coneeko'',Rees-Miller, J. (1996). Morphological Adaptation of English Loanwords in Algonquian. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', 62(2), 196–202.. 'calico cloth,' from English 'calico.' * ''applesank'', 'apple tree,' from English 'apples' (pl) and Massachusett () , 'tree.' Possibly pronounced *. * ''nukohtumun'', 'we (exclusive) hold court,' from English 'court' and Massachusett (). Possibly pronounced *. * ''moneyash'', 'money,' from English 'money' and Massachusett inanimate plural () . Possibly pronounced *. * ''Frenchmensog'', 'Frenchmen,' from hypercorrected plural of English 'Frenchmen' and Massachusett animate plural. Possibly pronounced as *, from variant spelling ''panachmansog''.Grammatical features
Like Pidgin Delaware, verbs in Massachusett are simplified into the inanimate forms. For example, Massasoit is believed to have said to Winslow upon his deathbed, (), 'Oh Winslow, I shall never see thee again' but more literally 'Not I again see Winslow.' In standard Massachusett, the expected verb would be () , a transitive animate verb, 'I see (someone)' or more direct () , 'I see you,' as opposed to ()Fermino, J. L. D. (2000). p. 48. , the transitive inanimate 'see it.' The simplification of all the verbs to inanimate forms necessitated the need of pronouns to clarify meaning as opposed to the standard Algonquian languages which are pro-drop due to the pronominal information encoded in the verb declension.References
{{Reflist North America Native-based pidgins and creoles Massachusett language Languages_attested_from_the_17th_century Extinct_languages_of_North_America Languages_extinct_in_the_18th_century Native American history of Massachusetts Wampanoag tribe