Philippopolis ( grc, Φιλιππούπολις, Φιλιππόπολις, or Φιλιπούπολις) is one of the names of the ancient city (amongst which are Thracian Eumolpia/Pulpudeva, Roman Trimontium) situated where Plovdiv is today. The city became one of the largest and most important in the region and was called "the largest and most beautiful of all cities" by Lucian. During most of its

recorded history Recorded history or written history describes the historical events that have been recorded in a written form or other documented communication which are subsequently evaluated by historians using the historical method. For broader world his ...

, the city was known by the name ''Philippopolis'' () after

Philip II of Macedon Philip II of Macedon ( grc-gre, Φίλιππος ; 382 – 21 October 336 BC) was the king ('' basileus'') of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia from 359 BC until his death in 336 BC. He was a member of the Argead dynasty, founders of the ...

. Philippopolis became part of the Roman empire and capital of the Roman province of

Thracia Thracia or Thrace ( ''Thrakē'') is the ancient name given to the southeastern Balkan region, the land inhabited by the Thracians. Thrace was ruled by the Odrysian kingdom during the Classical and Hellenistic eras, and briefly by the Greek D ...

. According to

Ammianus Marcellinus Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the ''Res Gestae ...

, Philippopolis had a population of 100,000 in the Roman period. Philippopolis was in a fertile region on the banks of the

Maritsa River Maritsa or Maritza ( bg, Марица ), also known as Meriç ( tr, Meriç ) and Evros ( ell, Έβρος ), is a river that runs through the Balkans in Southeast Europe. With a length of ,Hebrus). The city historically developed on seven syenite hills, some of which are high, because of which Plovdiv is often referred to in Bulgaria as "The City of the Seven Hills".

History

Pre-Roman history

The earliest signs of habitation on the territory of Philippopolis date as far back as the 6th millennium BC when the first settlements were established."Philippopolis Album", Kesyakova Elena, Raytchev Dimitar, Hermes, Sofia, 2012, History (Plovdiv)
Official website in English Archaeologists have discovered fine pottery and objects of everyday life on

Nebet Tepe Nebet Tepe is one of the hills of Plovdiv where the ancient town was founded. The earliest settlements on Nebet Tepe are dated back to 4000 BC.Детев П.Известия на музейте в Южна Българият. 1 (Bulletin des muse ...

from as early as the

Chalcolithic The Copper Age, also called the Chalcolithic (; from grc-gre, χαλκός ''khalkós'', "copper" and ''líthos'', "stone") or (A)eneolithic (from Latin '' aeneus'' "of copper"), is an archaeological period characterized by regular ...

, showing that at the end of the 4th millennium BC, there already was an established settlement there. Thracian necropolises dating back to the 2nd-3rd millennium BC have been discovered, while the Thracian town Eumolpias was established between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC. The walled town was built by the

Thracian The Thracians (; grc, Θρᾷκες ''Thrāikes''; la, Thraci) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Eastern and Southeastern Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied ...

tribe of the Bessi. In 516 BC during the rule of Darius the Great, Thrace was included in the Persian empire. In 492 BC the Persian general Mardonius subjected Thrace again, and it became nominally a vassal of Persia until the early rule of

Xerxes I Xerxes I ( peo, 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 ; grc-gre, Ξέρξης ; – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of D ...

. From 479 BC the town was included in the

Odrysian kingdom The Odrysian Kingdom (; Ancient Greek: ) was a state grouping many Thracian tribes united by the Odrysae, which arose in the early 5th century BC and existed at least until the late 1st century BC. It consisted mainly of present-day Bulgaria an ...

, a

tribal union. The town was conquered by

in 342 BC, (giving his name to the new city) and the Odrysian king was deposed. This marked the expansion of the city with an organised Greek street plan. Ten years after the Macedonian invasion the Odrysian king

Seuthes III Seuthes III ( grc, Σεύθης, Seuthēs) was a king of Odrysia, a part of Thrace, during the late 4th century BC (securely attested between 324 and 312 BC). Historical background Following the campaigns of Philip II in 347–342 BC a significa ...

revolted against

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...

's rule resulting in neither victory, nor defeat, but stalemate. Under Macedonian suzerainty the Thracian kings re-established their kingdom and started to exercise influence again. The city was destroyed by the

Celts The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...

as part of the Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe, most likely in the 270s BC. In 183 BC

Philip V of Macedon Philip V ( grc-gre, Φίλιππος ; 238–179 BC) was king ( Basileus) of Macedonia from 221 to 179 BC. Philip's reign was principally marked by an unsuccessful struggle with the emerging power of the Roman Republic. He would lead Macedon ag ...

conquered the city, but shortly afterwards the Thracians re-conquered it.

Roman history

In 72 BC the city was seized by the Roman general Marcus Lucullus during the

Third Mithridatic War The Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BC), the last and longest of the three Mithridatic Wars, was fought between Mithridates VI of Pontus and the Roman Republic. Both sides were joined by a great number of allies dragging the entire east of the ...

but was soon restored to Thracian control. In AD 46 the city was finally incorporated into the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...

by emperor Claudius. It gained city status (

municipium In ancient Rome, the Latin term (pl. ) referred to a town or city. Etymologically, the was a social contract among ("duty holders"), or citizens of the town. The duties () were a communal obligation assumed by the in exchange for the priv ...

) in the late 1st century. As ''Trimontium'' it was an important crossroad for the Roman Empire and was called "the largest and most beautiful of all cities" by Lucian. Although it was not the capital of the Province of Thrace at this time (which was

Perinthus Perinthus or Perinthos ( grc, ἡ Πέρινθος) was a great and flourishing town of ancient Thrace, situated on the Propontis. According to John Tzetzes, it bore at an early period the name of Mygdonia (Μυγδονία). It lay 22 miles wes ...

), the city was the largest and most important centre in the province. It was the seat of the Union of Thracians and the

Via Militaris Via Militaris or Via Diagonalis was an ancient Roman road, starting from Singidunum (today the Serbian capital Belgrade), passing by Danube coast to Viminacium (modern Požarevac), through Naissus (modern Niš), Serdica (modern Sofia), Philippo ...

(or Via Diagonalis), the most important military road in the

Balkans The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...

, passed through the city. Roman times were a period of growth and cultural excellence and the ancient ruins tell a story of a vibrant, growing city with numerous public buildings, shrines, baths, theatres and a stadium. The large scale of public construction during the Flavian Dynasty (69-96 AD) led to the city being named Flavia Philippopolis. Hadrian (r. 117-138) visited the city as part of his tour of the empire and a triumphal arch was erected outside the east gate in his honour. In 172, a second wall was built to encompass part of the city which had already extended out of the Three Hills into the valley, but leaving other parts outside unprotected. It became the provincial capital of Thrace in the early 3rd century. In about 250 the Battle of Philippopolis involved a long siege by the

Goths The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe ...

led by their ruler

Cniva Cniva ( mid-3rd century AD) was a Gothic king who invaded the Roman Empire. He successfully captured the city of Philippopolis (Plovdiv in Bulgaria) in 250 and killed Emperor Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus at the Battle of Abritus as he ...

. After betrayal by a disgruntled citizen who showed them where to scale the walls, the city was burned and 100,000 of its citizens died or were taken captive according to

. The city had contracted until the middle of the 4th century but then prospered later in the 4th century, like many cities in the region, and started spreading across the plain again. Philippopolis regained its size of the 3rd century, at its greatest prosperity. This expansion is shown by new large buildings on the acropolis (Trimontium) and also across the plain, such as the eastern baths and large Basilica. However, it was destroyed again by Attila's Huns in 441–2 and by the

Theodoric Strabo Theodoric (or Theoderic) Strabo ( la, Theodericus; died 481) was a Gothic chieftain who was involved in the politics of the Eastern Roman Empire during the reigns of Emperors Leo I, Zeno and Basiliscus. He was a rival for the leadership of the Ost ...

in 471.

Middle Ages

Philippopolis fell to the Bulgars of the First Bulgarian Empire in 863, during the reign of Boris I (), having been briefly abandoned by the Christian inhabitants in 813 during a dispute with the '' khan''

Krum Krum ( bg, Крум, el, Κροῦμος/Kroumos), often referred to as Krum the Fearsome ( bg, Крум Страшни) was the Khan of Bulgaria from sometime between 796 and 803 until his death in 814. During his reign the Bulgarian territory ...

(). After this the settlement contracted, though it remained a major city, with the city walls rebuilt and new Christian

basilicas In Ancient Roman architecture, a basilica is a large public building with multiple functions, typically built alongside the town's forum. The basilica was in the Latin West equivalent to a stoa in the Greek East. The building gave its nam ...

and Roman baths constructed in the 4th century. During the

Byzantine–Bulgarian wars The Byzantine–Bulgarian wars were a series of conflicts fought between the Byzantines and Bulgarians which began when the Bulgars first settled in the Balkan peninsula in the 5th century, and intensified with the expansion of the Bulgarian Em ...

, the emperor Basil the Bulgar-Slayer () used Philippopolis as a major strategic fortification, governed by the ''

protospatharios ''Prōtospatharios'' ( el, πρωτοσπαθάριος) was one of the highest court dignities of the middle Byzantine period (8th to 12th centuries), awarded to senior generals and provincial governors, as well as to foreign princes. History Th ...

Nikephoros Xiphias Nikephoros Xiphias ( el, Νικηφόρος Ξιφίας, ) was a Byzantine military commander during the reign of Emperor Basil II. He played a distinguished role in the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria, and was instrumental in the decisive Byzan ...

. In the middle 11th century, the city was attacked by the

Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა� ...

, who occupied it briefly around 1090. The city continued to prosper, with the walls restored in the 12th century, during which the historian and politician Niketas Choniates was its governor and the physician Michael Italikos was its

metropolitan bishop In Christian churches with episcopal polity, the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan (alternative obsolete form: metropolite), pertains to the diocesan bishop or archbishop of a metropolis. Originally, the term referred to the ...

. According to the Latin historian of the Fourth Crusade,

Geoffrey of Villehardouin Geoffrey of Villehardouin (c. 1150 – c. 1213) was a French knight and historian who participated in and chronicled the Fourth Crusade. He is considered one of the most important historians of the time period,Smalley, p. 131 best known for w ...

, Philippopolis was the third largest city in the Byzantine Empire, after

Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya ( Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...

(

Istanbul ) , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = 34000 to 34990 , area_code = +90 212 (European side) +90 216 (Asian side) , registration_plate = 34 , blank_name_sec2 = GeoTLD , blank_i ...

) and

Thessalonica Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...

(

Thessaloniki Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...

). It suffered damage from the armies passing through the city during the

Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...

as well as from sectarian violence between the

Eastern Orthodox Eastern Orthodoxy, also known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, is one of the three main branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholicism and Protestantism. Like the Pentarchy of the first millennium, the mainstream (or " canonical ...

and the

Armenian Orthodox , native_name_lang = hy , icon = Armenian Apostolic Church logo.svg , icon_width = 100px , icon_alt = , image = Էջմիածնի_Մայր_Տաճար.jpg , imagewidth = 250px , a ...

and Paulician denominations. During the

Third Crusade The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt by three European monarchs of Western Christianity (Philip II of France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor) to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by ...

Frederick I Frederick I may refer to: * Frederick of Utrecht or Frederick I (815/16–834/38), Bishop of Utrecht. * Frederick I, Duke of Upper Lorraine (942–978) * Frederick I, Duke of Swabia (1050–1105) * Frederick I, Count of Zoll ...

camped in Philippopolis from 26 August to 5 November 1189. The city was destroyed by Kaloyan of Bulgaria () in 1206 and rebuilt thereafter. In 1219, the city became the capital of the Crusader

Duchy of Philippopolis The Duchy of Philippopolis was a short-lived duchy of the Latin Empire founded after the collapse and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. It included the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv) and the surrounding region. ...

, part of the

Latin Empire The Latin Empire, also referred to as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, was a feudal Crusader state founded by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. The Latin Empire was intended to replace the Byzant ...

. The Second Bulgarian Empire recovered the city in 1263, but lost it to Byzantine control before recapturing it in 1323. The

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...

conquered Philippopolis ( tr, Filibe) in 1363 or 1364.

Urban development and archaeology

The layout of Philippopolis was revealed to a large extent by archaeology between 1965-85 which, with historical records, confirm the presence of three archaeological levels: Hellenistic, Roman and Late Roman."Древният Филипопол", arch. М. Mateev, "Жанет 45", Plovdiv, 1999,

Hellenistic period

The town originally built on the hills, starting from the original Thracian settlement on Nebet Tepe and the Three Hills in general, was extended to the plain in the Hellenistic period. The initial planning and construction of Philippopolis started during

Philip II Philip II may refer to: * Philip II of Macedon (382–336 BC) * Philip II (emperor) (238–249), Roman emperor * Philip II, Prince of Taranto (1329–1374) * Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (1342–1404) * Philip II, Duke of Savoy (1438-1497) * Philip ...

's rule (359–336 BC) and continued during the reign of

and the

Diadochi The Diadochi (; singular: Diadochus; from grc-gre, Διάδοχοι, Diádochoi, Successors, ) were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The War ...

. Despite the unstable political and economic environment from the 4th century BC to the 1st century BC, large-scale urban planning and complex construction techniques were implemented. The Hippodamian street plan was applied to Philippopolis as in other ancient towns like Miletus, Ephesus,

Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...

and

Olynthus Olynthus ( grc, Ὄλυνθος ''Olynthos'', named for the ὄλυνθος ''olunthos'', "the fruit of the wild fig tree") was an ancient city of Chalcidice, built mostly on two flat-topped hills 30–40m in height, in a fertile plain at the he ...

. Hellenistic Philippopolis had a network of orthogonal gravel streets. Some of the streets had pavements, curbs and cambers to accommodate rain water drainage. The intersecting streets formed rectangular city blocks (

insulae The Latin word ''insula'' (literally meaning "island", plural ''insulae'') was used in Roman cities to mean either a city block in a city plan, i.e. a building area surrounded by four streets, or, later, a type of apartment building that occup ...

) with residential and public buildings. A great number of public buildings were built such as

theatre Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The perform ...

, agora, and

temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...

s. The first city wall of Philippopolis was built as early as the 4th century BC and fragments of this fortification system are visible today on the northern and northwest slopes of Nebet Tepe. The wall was provided with small gates that led to passages or tunnels inside the rock through which steps reached the northern foot of the hill.

Roman period

Bulgaria Bulgaria-0812 - Roman Odeon (7432938030)

The urban planning model from the Hellenistic period was followed and developed after the city became part of the Roman empire. The Romans continued the legacy left by the Greek architects; the unit of measure used by the Romans (the

Roman foot Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...

- 296 mm) coincided almost entirely with the Attica step used in the Hellenistic period thus allowing them to easily follow the initial urban planning model of the town without making significant alterations. Roman buildings that can be seen today are the: * Stadium *

Theatre Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The perform ...

* Roman forum * Odeon *

Library A library is a collection of materials, books or media that are accessible for use and not just for display purposes. A library provides physical (hard copies) or digital access (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical location or a vir ...

* City walls including the east gate and south gate * Aqueducts * Luxurious house known as the Domus Eirene * treasury. Extensive renovation and large-scale construction took place after the Roman conquest in 46 AD in order to meet the growing needs of the population. A characteristic of the buildings in Roman Philippopolis was their large scale and lavish decoration which expressed the greatness and influence of the Roman Empire. In the Roman era the built-up area of Philippopolis in the plain totalled . It included around 150

each with a width of 1 actus (35.5 m) and length of 2 actus (71 m). The existing street network was renovated and expanded with water supply and sewer system beneath it. The area of the road network amounted to 100,000 m² The streets were paved with large granite slabs. The width of the streets was 15 Roman feet (4.4 m) while the width of the main streets reached 30 Roman feet (8.9 m). In the 2nd c. AD, the area north of the forum was enhanced and important public buildings from the Hellenistic period like the theatre, the stadium, the agora, treasury and odeon were rebuilt and expanded.

City walls

The walls were originally built in the 4th c. BC around the Three Hills. In 172, according to an inscription found in the East Gate area from the reign of Emperor

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good ...

, the city walls were strengthened on the three hills, and extended around the city in the plain in the areas to the east and west of the three hills, including, unusually, the stadium. Part of this wall can be seen today under Djumaya Square, next to the Stadium. However the wall was also built across part of the city lying to the south of the forum strangely leaving many buildings outside the protection of the walls. Eventually this area became derelict and was used as a cemetery where early Christian tombs have been discovered. Although damaged in 251 during the Gothic invasion, the walls were renovated in the 3rd and 4th centuries. After the Gothic invasions changes were made particularly in the East Gate complex. The earlier gate was abandoned and a new gate was added which included an existing triumphal arch in honour of Hadrian from the 2nd century. Several remains of towers can be seen, including the eastern round tower. The odeon was built as a Hellenistic

Bouleuterion A bouleuterion ( grc-gre, βουλευτήριον, ''bouleutērion''), also translated as and was a building in ancient Greece which housed the council of citizens (, ''boulē'') of a democratic city state. These representatives assembled a ...

, or council chamber, and underwent four reconstructions between the 1st and 4th centuries for use as a small theatre.

Aqueducts

Three aqueducts of 22 km length supplied mainly the lower part of the city, while the hills relied on wells and rainwater tanks. The aqueducts run in parallel in the neighbourhood of the suburb of Komatevo at a separation of 30-40m, one a pipeline of clay pipes and two carried partially overhead on arches. A section of the bridge of the "western" aqueduct, which is the considerably more massive one, has been partially restored on Komatevsko Shose. It is the only one standing today in Bulgaria. Piers are also visible at the Roman stadium. Recent excavations have revealed more of the piers dating from the 2nd c. AD. It is assumed that the three aqueducts converged on the western slopes of Djendemtepe into a distribution tank (

castellum aquae A ''castellum'' in Latin is usually: * a small Roman fortlet or tower,C. Julius Caesar, Gallic War; 2,30 a diminutive of (' military camp'), often used as a watchtower or signal station like on Hadrian's Wall. It should be distinguished from a ...

) which seems to have been destroyed in the construction of the modern tunnel. The source of the water supply network was three waterfalls on the slopes of the Rhodope Mountains, two in the Marata locality near today's village of and one in the Kaynitsite locality near the present town of Kuklen. The catchments at Markovo are well researched; one of them is an underground reservoir measuring 13 × 7 m, partially destroyed; the second is a complex tunnel system: a central gallery and side branches. It is not fully investigated, but the length of one of the lateral branches is 76 m. The distribution network in the city itself is located under the streets, with pipelines along all north-south streets, but only under a few in east-west directions. Street pipelines are built with clay pipes, with branches to separate houses and fountains with lead. The pipelines led to many public fountains and fountains which, although not found, are known from many sculptural fragments. The total water flow is estimated at around 43,000 m³ per day.

Late Roman period

Notable buildings that can be seen today are the: * Great Basilica, Plovdiv * Small Basilica, Plovdiv The enormous Great Basilica with its magnificent floor mosaics has been excavated over many years and is now preserved in a new museum (2021).

Other archaeology

Recent excavations have revealed a 1st c. triumphal arch, only the 2nd in Bulgaria. In 2018, a fragment from a Roman statue with an ancient Greek inscription was found which mentions the right of “proedria" (the right to take front row seats in the theatre. These were the honorary seats for the most honoured administrative and political figures) and the name Sozipatros. In 2019, archaeologists found a large stone slab at the Episcopal Basilica site of the 3rd century AD. It was inscribed in

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

honouring the god

Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Roma ...

. The inscription reads: “For the victory, the health and the eternal existence of the emperors, Publius, Licinius Valerian and Gallien Augustin and for their whole house, for the holy senate and Roman people, and for the council and people's assembly of Philippopolis – the Thracian leader Dionysus dedicated the surviving mysteries, while the leader of the mysteries and eternal priest was Aurelius Mukianid, son of Mukian”. This is followed by a list of all 44 members of the mystical society, several with the positions they occupy.Archaeology: Third-century inscription with names of Dionysus cult found in Bulgaria's Plovdiv
/ref>

References

Bibliography

*{{cite book , last=Freed , first=John , year=2016 , title=Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth , publisher=Yale University Press , location=New Haven, CT , isbn=978-0-300-122763 Roman towns and cities in Bulgaria Ancient cities of the Balkans History of Plovdiv Thracian towns Populated places in ancient Thrace Argead colonies Catholic titular sees in Europe