Petroleum (), also known as crude oil and oil, is a
naturally occurring, yellowish-black
liquid found in
geological formations beneath the
Earth's surface. It is commonly refined into various types of
fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called
fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a
fractionating column. It consists of naturally occurring
hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and may contain miscellaneous
organic compounds. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and
petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A
fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, mostly
zooplankton and
algae, are buried underneath
sedimentary rock and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.
Petroleum has mostly been recovered by
oil drilling. Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterisation. Recent improvements to technologies have also led to exploitation of other unconventional reserves such as
oil sands and
oil shale. Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by
distillation, into numerous products for direct use or use in manufacturing, such as
gasoline (petrol),
diesel and
kerosene to
asphalt and chemical
reagents used to make
plastics,
pesticides and
pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials,
and it is estimated that the world consumes about 100 million
barrels each day. Petroleum production can be extremely profitable and was important for economic development in the 20th century, with some countries, so called "
oil states", gaining significant economic and international power because of their control of oil production.
Petroleum exploitation has significant negative environmental and social consequences. Most significantly,
extraction,
refining and
burning of petroleum fuels all release large quantities of
greenhouse gases, so petroleum is one of the
major contributors to climate change. At the same time, parts of the
petroleum industry actively suppressed science and policy that aimed to prevent the
climate crisis. Other
negative environmental effects include the environmental impacts of exploration and exploitation of petroleum reserves, such as
oil spills, and air and water pollution at the sites of utilization. All of these environmental impacts have direct health consequences for humans. Additionally, oil has also been a source of conflict leading to both
state-led-wars and other kinds of conflicts (for example,
oil revenue funded the
Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant). Production of petroleum is expected to reach
peak oil before 2040 as global economies reduce dependencies on petroleum as part of
climate change mitigation and a transition towards
renewable energy and
electrification. This is expected to have significant economic impacts that stakeholders argue need to be anticipated by a
just transition and addressing the
stranded assets of the petroleum industry.
Etymology

The word ''petroleum'' comes from
Medieval Latin (literally "rock oil"), which comes from
Latin ''
petra'', "rock", (from grc|πέτρα|translit=petra, "rock") and Latin ''
oleum'', "oil", (from grc|ἔλαιον|translit=élaion, "oil").
The term was used in the treatise ''
De Natura Fossilium'', published in 1546 by the German mineralogist
Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola. In the 19th century, the term ''petroleum'' was often used to refer to
mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as
cannel coal (and later
oil shale) and refined oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the ''Petroleum Act 1863'' onwards.
History
Early

Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the
internal combustion engine, the rise in
commercial aviation, and the importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of plastics, fertilisers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.
More than 4000 years ago, according to
Herodotus and
Diodorus Siculus,
asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of
Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on
Zacynthus.
Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river
Issus, one of the tributaries of the
Euphrates. Ancient
Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.
The use of petroleum in ancient China dates back to more than 2000 years ago. In
I Ching, one of the earliest Chinese writings cites that oil in its raw state, without refining, was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BCE. In addition, the Chinese were the first to record the use of petroleum as fuel as early as the fourth century BCE. By 347 CE, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China.
Crude oil was often distilled by
Persian chemists, with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes). The streets of
Baghdad were paved with
tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century,
oil fields were exploited in the area around modern
Baku,
Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the
Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by
Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.
Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce
flammable products for military purposes. Through
Islamic Spain, distillation became available in
Western Europe by the 12th century. It has also been present in Romania since the 13th century, being recorded as păcură.
Sophisticated oil pits, 15 to 20 feet deep, were dug by the
Seneca People and other
Iroqouis in
Western Pennsylvania as early as 1415-1450. The French General
Louis-Joseph de Montcalm encountered Seneca using petroleum for ceremonial fires and as a healing lotion during a visit to Fort Duquesne in 1750.
Early British explorers to
Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in
Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production.
Pechelbronn (Pitch fountain) is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, notably for medical purposes. Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century.
In
Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century. Both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies.
Modern

Chemist
James Young noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the
Riddings colliery at
Alfreton,
Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a more viscous oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848, Young set up a small business refining the crude oil.
Young eventually succeeded, by distilling
cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.
The production of these oils and solid
paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at
Bathgate in
West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery.
The world's first oil refinery was built in 1856 by
Ignacy Łukasiewicz. His achievements also included the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp (1853), the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe (1853), and the construction of the world's first modern oil well (1854).
The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.
Edwin Drake's
1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well. Already 1858 Georg Christian Konrad Hunäus had found a significant amount of petroleum while drilling for
lignite 1858 in
Wietze, Germany. Wietze later provided about 80% of the German consumption in the Wilhelminian Era. The production stopped in 1963, but Wietze has hosted a Petroleum Museum since 1970.
Drake's well is probably singled out because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a major boom. However, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region of Bibi-Heybat in 1846. There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well. An early commercial well was hand dug in
Poland in 1853, and another in nearby
Romania in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at
Jasło in Poland, with a larger one opened at
Ploiești in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.
The
first commercial oil well in Canada became operational in 1858 at
Oil Springs, Ontario (then
Canada West).
[Oil Museum of Canada, Black Gold: Canada's Oil Heritage, Oil Springs: Boom & Bust](_blank)
Businessman
James Miller Williams dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground. Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil. Williams's well became commercially viable a year before Drake's Pennsylvania operation and could be argued to be the first commercial oil well in North America. The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an
oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Advances in drilling continued into 1862 when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 metres using the spring-pole drilling method. On January 16, 1862, after an explosion of
natural gas Canada's first oil gusher came into production, shooting into the air at a recorded rate of 3,000 barrels per day. By the end of the 19th century the Russian Empire, particularly the
Branobel company in
Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.
[Akiner(2004), p. 5]

Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including
World War II, during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were
extensively bombed. The
German invasion of the Soviet Union included the goal to capture the
Baku oilfields, as it would provide much needed oil-supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades. Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century later led to the US becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the US peaked during the 1960s, however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.
In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other
Arab nations imposed an
oil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan and other Western nations which supported
Israel in the
Yom Kippur War of October 1973. The embargo caused an
oil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.
Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important
commodities.
The top three oil producing countries are
Russia,
Saudi Arabia and the
United States. In 2018, due in part to developments in
hydraulic fracturing and
horizontal drilling, the United States became the world's largest producer.
About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5:
Saudi Arabia,
United Arab Emirates,
Iraq,
Qatar and
Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as
bitumen in
Athabasca oil sands and
extra heavy oil in the
Orinoco Belt. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.
Composition
Petroleum includes not only crude oil, but all liquid, gaseous and solid
hydrocarbons. Under surface
pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons
methane,
ethane,
propane and
butane exist as gases, while
pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground
oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the
phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.
An
oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas
dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of
solution and be recovered (or burned) as ''associated gas'' or ''solution gas''. A
gas well produces predominantly
natural gas. However, because the underground temperature is higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane,
hexane, and
heptane in the
gaseous state. At surface conditions these will
condense out of the gas to form "
natural gas condensate", often shortened to ''condensate.'' Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some
volatile light crude oils.
The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different
oil fields, ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the heavier oils and
bitumens.
The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly
alkanes,
cycloalkanes and various
aromatic hydrocarbons, while the other organic compounds contain
nitrogen,
oxygen and
sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and
vanadium. Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria. The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of
chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:
Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and
saline water which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the
Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude
bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow. Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the
Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called
extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are called
unconventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and
Venezuela contain an estimated of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.
Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into
fuel oil and gasoline, both important ''"
primary energy"'' sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and
liquefied petroleum gas. The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted,
oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using
fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.
Due to its high
energy density, easy transportability and
relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many
chemical products, including
pharmaceuticals,
solvents,
fertilizers,
pesticides, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in
porous rock formations in the upper
strata of some areas of the
Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in
oil sands (tar sands). Known
oil reserves are typically estimated at around 190 km
3 (1.2
trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands, or 595 km
3 (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. Consumption is currently around per day, or 4.9 km
3 per year, yielding a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remains static. More recent studies, however, put the number at around 50 years.
Chemistry

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different
hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are
alkanes (paraffins),
cycloalkanes (
naphthenes),
aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like
asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of
molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and
viscosity.
The ''alkanes'', also known as ''paraffins'', are
saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only
carbon and
hydrogen and have the general formula C
nH
2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.
The alkanes from
pentane (C
5H
12) to
octane (C
8H
18) are
refined into gasoline, the ones from
nonane (C
9H
20) to
hexadecane (C
16H
34) into
diesel fuel,
kerosene and
jet fuel. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into
fuel oil and
lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range,
paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while
asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually
cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either
flared off, sold as
liquefied petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C
4H
10), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapour pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.
The ''cycloalkanes'', also known as ''naphthenes'', are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula C
nH
2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.
The ''aromatic hydrocarbons'' are
unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called
benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula C
nH
2n-6. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are
carcinogenic.
These different molecules are separated by
fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example,
2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in
gasoline, has a chemical formula of C
8H
18 and it reacts with oxygen
exothermically:
:2
(''l'') + 25
(''g'') → 16
(''g'') + 18
(''g'') (ΔH = −5.51 MJ/mol of octane)
The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined by laboratory analysis. The molecules are typically extracted in a
solvent, then separated in a
gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable
detector, such as a
flame ionization detector or a
mass spectrometer. Due to the large number of co-eluted hydrocarbons within oil, many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography and typically appear as a hump in the chromatogram. This
Unresolved Complex Mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil. Some of the component of oil will mix with water: the
water associated fraction of the oil.
Incomplete combustion of petroleum or gasoline results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen during combustion results in the formation of
carbon monoxide. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from gasoline combustion in car engines usually include
nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of
photochemical smog.
Empirical equations for thermal properties
Heat of combustion
At a constant volume, the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:
:
,
where
is measured in calories per gram and
is the
specific gravity at .
Thermal conductivity
The
thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:
: