The Penultimate Glacial Period (PGP) is the glacial age that occurred before the Last Glacial Period. The penultimate glacial period is officially unnamed just like the Last Glacial Period. The word ''penultimate'' simply means second to last. While the PGP is a part of the ongoing Quaternary ice age, which began 2.58 million years ago, the PGP lasted from ~194,000 years ago, to ~135,000 years ago. The PGP also occurred during the Marine Isotope age 6 (MIS6). At the glacial ages’ height, it is known to be the most extensive expansion of

glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such as ...

s in the last 400,000 years over Eurasia, and could be the second or third coolest glacial period over the last 1,000,000 years, as shown by ice cores. Due to this, the global sea level dropped to between 92 and 150 metres below modern-day global mean sea level. The penultimate glacial period expanded ice sheets and shifted temperature zones worldwide, which had a variety of effects on the world’s environment, and the organisms that lived in it. At its height, the penultimate glacial period was a more severe glaciation than the Last Glacial Maximum.

Cause

Much like the last glacial period, the penultimate glacial period was caused by a great orbital eccentricity of Earth. This eccentricity causes greater seasonal impacts than normal because it limits the amount of sunlight that reaches the earth’s surface, lowering the temperature. Due to this, northern insolation (the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface) is reduced, this means when it's summer, less heat is exposed to the snows of the winter, which don't completely melt. This buildup of ice and snow over thousands of years eventually leads to residual ice sheets, which would also reflect light away from the

earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surfa ...

, further cooling the earth. A decrease in greenhouse gas concentrations such as CO₂, are a result of the expanded ice sheets. This is because as the Earth cooled, and ice sheets expanded, the ocean waters became colder, which then could absorb more CO₂ from the atmosphere. These factors all feedback into each other: as the ice sheets extended, more CO₂ was absorbed, and more light was reflected off the ice sheets, furthermore expanding the ice sheets, this self-reinforcing cooling setting the world into a glacial period.

Effects in Europe

In northern

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...

, the biggest expansion of glaciation of the last 400,000 years covered the northern region in a thick ice sheet, which caused a drastic reduction of vegetation. In the Mediterranean, polar winds from the now extended ice sheets brought cooler and wetter conditions that caused a significant reduction in large vegetation such as trees. Pollen sequences found from MIS 6 indicated that early in the glacial period, tree abundance fluctuated heavily. Later in the glacial period, extreme conditions were followed by a mainly treeless landscape all across Europe. This rendered Europe a polar desert just south of the now expanded ice sheets, and the rest of Europe was left with a sporadic herb based plant cover. Europe north of the

Alps The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Swi ...

was a tundra-steppe of predominantly grasses, sedges, and chenopods, while land south of the Alps featured discontinuous steppe vegetation patterns. There were some refugia in the sheltered areas of the mountainous Alps and the western

Balkans The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...

where tree populations survived. This was due to temperature variations not being extreme in these locations, as well as precipitation still being sufficient. This is unlike the rest of Europe, such as in

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...

where pollen samples revealed a precipitation decrease of almost 60% compared to the modern day. The drastic changes in the climate also resulted in increased storms in the North Atlantic, affecting Europe as well as North America.

Effects in Asia

Isotope dating was conducted in Hulu Cave, eastern China, and found that the penultimate glacial period’s presence was felt in central China. The dating showed an increased presence of oxygen-18, an isotope that reflects the meteoric water and cave temperature, as well as precipitation of the penultimate glacial period. This data led to the confirmation of intense monsoons that impacted most of south-east Asia, and up to modern day Xi’an China. The increase in the intensity of monsoons was due to the orbital shifting of the planet, but was amplified by the ice sheets that formed for the same reason. These factors combined then affected the atmospheric hydrological cycle, creating more intense seasonal winds that led to increased precipitation over south-east Asia.

Effects in North America

In contrast to Europe, there is no geological evidence to support a similarly sized ice sheet in North America. Ice-rafted debris from the Hudson area indicates that during MIS6, there were far fewer icebergs in the North Atlantic than in the last glacial period. Simulations testing the extent of an ice sheet in North America have shown that a smaller ice sheet is probable, as the simulation produced weather data that is consistent with hypothesized temperatures at the time. This simulation showed the precipitation rates over North America doubled during MIS6, which would have been a result of the icy winds expanding southward further into the continent, as well as the increased storms.

Effects on ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa

Several studies have suggested that ''

Homo sapiens Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, ...

'' went through a bottleneck during the penultimate glacial period which reduced numbers to a low level, but a 2012 analysis of three modern African populations finds no evidence for a bottleneck at this time. Oceanic cores, taken from western Africa, show the deserts expanded, pushing the savannah and the

tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equa ...

s downward, and oak trees occupying the Mediterranean coast, disappeared. This is thought to have occurred due to southward migration of the subtropical, and high pressure zone of the Mediterranean. This dislocation of vegetation was thought to have displaced ''Homo sapiens''. However, studies have shown that the region which the early humans occupied was very lightly disturbed, and a bottleneck due to the penultimate glacial period is unlikely.

References

Holocene Holocene events Ice ages Pleistocene Pleistocene events Quaternary events {{Glaciology-stub