Papiamento orthography

Papiamento has two standardised orthographies, one used on the island of Aruba and the other on the islands of Curaçao and Bonaire. The Aruban orthography is more etymological in nature, while the other is more phonemic. Among the differences between the two standards, one obvious difference is the way the name of the language is written. In Aruba it is written ''Papiamento'', while in Curaçao and Bonaire it is written ''Papiamentu''. The governments of Curaçao and Aruba formally standardised orthographic rules in 1976 and 1977, respectively.

History

Development

The first efforts to formalise the language began in the early 1970s, with the first step made in 1969 in Curaçao. R.G. Römer presented to the Central Government of the Netherlands Antilles his (''Draft of a spelling for Papyamento''). In 1970 the Maduro Commission consisting of eight members, R.G. Römer included, was formed. With a modified proposition, they presented their recommendations to the Minister of Education of the Netherlands Antilles. With further revision, the minister's recommendations were passed onto the Deputy of Education of Curaçao in 1975. Here a Jonis Commission was formed to advise the Curaçaoan government on the didactic aspects of the Römer-Maduro orthography. It was also in 1975 that the Central Government decided that each island within the Netherlands Antilles could choose their orthography. In 1976, Curaçao officially adopted the Römer-Maduro-Jonis version while Aruba had approved a version presented by the (Orthography Commission) presided by Jossy Mansur. This was officially adopted in 1977.

After official approval, both islands embarked on programs to promote the language. A commission including Maduro and Jonis of previous commissions was appointed the task of publishing a new version of the Curaçaoan orthography, which appeared in 1983. While interest in the language seemed to grow, problems arose in Aruba. Rules seemed unclear and not comprehensive in certain areas. In 1992 this prompted the Minister of Welfare to name a commission with the purpose of clarification and reform of the Aruban orthography. The commission delivered its findings later that year. Three years later the Aruban government relayed these findings to a number of institutions for analysis and to gather input. In the course of a year, the Government collected the recommendations it had received and in 1997 the Ministry of Education and Labour named a second commission to analyse and incorporate the relevant annotations. Their findings were presented to the ministry later that year. It was near the end of 2006 when the Ministry of Education had inventarised all additional recommendations and the official version which takes these into account was published the next year.

Recognition

Throughout this process of reform of the language's orthography were elevations in formal recognition of the language. The (''General administrative law'') of the Netherlands was reformed in 1995 in great part to allow the use of the West Frisian language in governmental administration within the province of Friesland. This reform also allowed Papiamento and English to be used alongside Dutch within Aruba and the islands of the Netherlands Antilles. In 2003 the Aruban government passed a law concerning the official language of the island, making Papiamento and Dutch the official languages of Aruba. Four years later in 2007, the government of the Netherlands Antilles passed a similar law making Papiamentu, Dutch and English the official languages of the islands. With the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010, the government of the Netherlands has maintained the official status of Papiamentu, English and Dutch in the Caribbean Netherlands. The official languages of Curaçao since then remain Papiamentu and Dutch.

Alphabet

Spelling-to-sound correspondences

Vowels and vowel combinations

* , and are not modified in Papiamento (Aruba) to represent the sounds , , or .
* Provided the frequency with which and appear in Papiamentu (Curaçao, Bonaire), it is not required to use the grave accent, i.e. or when or is heard.
* The word ''y'' (meaning 'and') is the only example of as a vowel and only appears in Papiamento (in Papiamentu, the word is written as ''i'').

Double vowels and diphthongs

In Papiamento, vowels appear in succession only when each is pronounced separately e.g. (''to reeducate''). This rule is part of Papiamentu orthography as well. Moreover, in Papiamentu a diaeresis or trema , as may be used in the language of origin of various loan words, is never used to distinguish separate sounds like in Dutch () or Spanish ().

Diphthongs can be categorised as descending or ascending. Both dialects have eight ascending and eight descending, Papiamentu having nine of the latter as is unique to this dialect. The difference is a matter of pronunciation and, in Papiamentu, a matter of accent placement on the stressed syllable.

Semivowels

In the orthographies of both dialects, words beginning with an ascending diphthong, e.g. or , are never written with or , respectively. These are always rewritten with a for and for , e.g. ('key') and not ', ('eye') and not ' (or ' for that matter). Moreover, is never written between and another vowel, nor is ever written between and another vowel. Few exceptions exist and while in the Aruban dialect words like ('million'), where the substitutes the from the original Spanish word , are considered correct, in Papiamentu they are not and are written without the ().

Modified vowels

Beside the vowels , , , and , the Papiamentu orthography further distinguishes between the -sounds and , -sounds and , and -sounds and through use of the grave accent . The letters , and represent the sounds , and respectively. Moreover, to represent the sound, i.e. in Dutch loan words like ('rent') and ('sour'), the is rewritten as in Papiamentu () to comply with the rule regarding double vowels and the phonemic consistency as a whole. The sounds and appear often in Papiamentu. To reduce the excessive appearance of the grave accent, it is not required to use it in the diphthongs and , nor is it incorrect to omit the accent when the letters are capitalised, e.g. , ('Curaçao').

The orthography of the Aruban dialect makes no use of accents or diaeresis and while the spelling of loan words is adjusted when possible, often it is retained as in their original language.

Consonants and consonant combinations

* The letter (except the digraph ) appears almost only in proper names in Papiamentu. The letters (except the digraphs and ), and are exclusively used in loan words and names in both dialects.
* , , and are the four official digraphs of Papiamento/u.

Double consonants and digraphs

Consonants are seldom doubled in Papiamento/u. According to the orthographies of both dialects, this only occurs when a word takes on a prefix, e.g. - as in ('unnatural'), or a suffix, e.g. - as in ('breads'). In Papiamentu, numerals are written as one word, e.g. ('two hundred') and are another example of where consonants may appear twice, but in Papiamento they are not, e.g. ''/''. In Papiamento where the letter is often used, the first in words like and is pronounced .

The four official digraphs are , , and , representing , , and respectively. The combination appears in Papiamento in loan words such as , but it is not considered a digraph.

Use of C

The pronunciation of in both dialects follows the general rule of the hard and soft as in Latin-based orthographies of various European languages, i.e. pronounced before and , and elsewhere. However, the use of differs per dialect. As Papiamento is focused more on etymology than phonemic spelling, the is far more commonly used compared to Papiamentu, where its use is limited to proper names.

There is consistency in Papiamento in terms of when a hard is used instead of a and when a soft is used instead of an . Before the vowels , and , a is used instead of a , e.g. ('house'), ('thing') and ('kitchen') instead of ', ' and '. Moreover, a is used instead of a when it appears before an , , or . A soft is used instead of an most often in the final syllable, in verbs ending in or , e.g. ('to know'), ('to translate'), or words with or in the final syllable, e.g. , . This extends to derivatives of such words, such as . Less regular examples of the use of a soft instead of an are words like ('blind') and ('pleasure').

Hard and soft G

Many words are of Spanish origin and thus follow Spanish orthography to a certain extent. Like the hard and soft , the orthographies of both dialects follow the Spanish example in distinguishing between the hard and soft . That is to say, to preserve a voiced () that would otherwise be a when followed by or , it must be written as and respectively. The words (from Spanish meaning 'to continue', 'to follow') and (from meaning 'war') are pronounced and , the being silent as they would be in Spanish. To produce and in Spanish, a diaeresis is written above the , e.g. ('shame'), ('penguin'). To comply with the rules of Papiamentu orthography, the in such loan words is replaced with a , i.e. .

Diacritics

The Papiamentu dialect of Curaçao and Bonaire is the only one of the two that makes use of the grave accent , the diaeresis or trema and the acute accent . The grave accent and diaeresis are used to distinguish one vowel from another, e.g. and , and , while the acute accent is used to indicate stress within a word. Without an accent, words in Papiamentu take on a consistent manner of emphasis. The stress in words without any acute accent is always on the last syllable in words ending with a consonant and on the penultimate in words ending with a vowel. Words that do not follow the default stress have an acute accent above the vowel (or second vowel of a diphthong) of the stressed syllable.

Like Spanish, Papiamentu orthography distinguishes between four types of words:
* or oxytones: words with emphasis on the final syllable.
** Examples: ,
* or paroxytones: words with emphasis on the penultimate (second to last) syllable.
** Examples: ,
* or proparoxytones: from the Spanish word , words with emphasis on the antepenultimate (third to last) syllable.
** Examples: ,
* : from the Spanish word , words with emphasis on the preantepenultimate (fourth to last) syllable.
** Examples: ,

Stress is always placed on a syllable with a grave accent, e.g. , unless there is another syllable with an acute accent, e.g. . As such, vowels with grave accents are not altered to indicate stress on the syllable in which it is located.

Apocope

In many cases in Papiamentu, the acute accent preserves emphasis in words of Spanish and/or Portuguese origin where they would otherwise have naturally occurred, i.e. without an acute accent. In these cases, words have undergone a seemingly systematic elision of final letters, or apocope. In verbs, the final -r in infinitive form and -do of past participles had been dropped, among other examples. Words like ('to recognise') became and ('marked') became . As for the ending of words describing a person of a certain profession or craft, words like ('cobbler') and ('fisherman') became and . This phonological change brought with it the orthographical problem in distinguishing between certain words like , from ('kitchen') and , from ('to cook'). This is resolved by the use of the acute accent.

Contractions

In both dialects, phonological elision often takes place in colloquial speech and writing and orthographic rules take these contractions into account. The orthographic rules of Papiamentu in particular discourage the use of contractions, recommending that words be spelt out in full as much as possible. The most common contractions involve the words ('to be'), ('to, for'), ('of'), ('no, not') and ('him/her/it, the').

* ''>''
** is only contracted when followed by a word beginning with a vowel, e.g. > ('he/she/it is here').
** is always affixed to the word following it.
* ''>''
** is contracted in the same way as , e.g. ''/'' > ''/'' ('that's why I am going')
* ''>''
** may be contracted whether preceded by a vowel or consonant, e.g. ''/'' > ''/'' ('sack of limes'), ''/'' > ''/'' ('John's house').
** is only affixed to the word preceding it if a phoneme is dropped from the preceding word as well, e.g. > ('Sandra's comb'), but > ('sunglasses').
** In some cases, words ending in an unstressed -er like ''/'' ('bottle') may be contracted without the use of an apostrophe, e.g. ''/'' > ''/'' ('bottle of water') and not ''/''.
* ''>''
** is only contracted when followed by a word with a consonant, e.g. > (they don't know).
** is never affixed to other words.
* ''>'' /
** is only contracted when preceded by a word with a vowel, e.g. > ''/'' (Anna will send it).
** Like , ''/'' is only affixed to the word preceding it if a phoneme is dropped from the preceding word as well.
** Because is stressed and changes the stress of the word to which it is affixed, it is always accented in Papiamentu when contracted, e.g. > ('we made it').

Note: the pronunciation of Papiamento words with a does not change when such words are contracted with or , i.e. the in , though followed by an , retains its sound.

Erroneous use

The contraction of is peculiar in that, while its vowel is dropped, it is never affixed to the following word like and are, or to any word for that matter. Moreover, is only contracted when followed by a consonant, not a vowel as in the aforementioned examples. The exceptional nature of this contraction might lead to confusion and erroneous affixture or instead of . The latter may be attributed to the fact that the in becomes nasal before verbs beginning with or (or a hard ), e.g. ('I didn't believe'). The sound is typically associated with in a final location and may seem to make more sense.

As mentioned, , like , is only contracted with the word preceding it if a phoneme is dropped from the preceding word as well. , however, has the unique property of changing the emphasis of the word before it. Both and are commonly affixed to the word before them, even when they shouldn't be. In Papiamentu, should always take on the acute accent because it is stressed when contracted.

Notes

References

Papiamento.aw
– Papiamento language website of the Aruba government (in Papiamento)
*
Aruba Papiamento language grammar (in Papiamento)

*
Aruba Papiamento spelling and orthography rules (in Papiamento)

*
Aruba Papiamento official wordlist

Curaçao and Bonaire Papiamentu orthography rules and official wordlist (in Papiamentu)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Papiamento Orthography
Languages of the Caribbean
Indo-European Latin-script orthographies
Papiamento