Panama–United States relations
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Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Cos ...
and the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
cooperate in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through international agencies. According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report, 32% of
Panamanian people Panamanians (Spanish: ''Panameños'') are people identified with Panama, a transcontinental country in Central America (a region within North America) and South America, whose connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural. For m ...
approve of U.S. leadership, with 16% disapproving and 52% uncertain.


Overview


19th century


Panama

President James Polk's ambassador to the
Republic of New Granada The Republic of New Granada was a 1831–1858 centralist unitary republic consisting primarily of present-day Colombia and Panama with smaller portions of today's Costa Rica, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru and Brazil. On 9 May 1834, the national flag wa ...
, Benjamin Alden Bidlack, negotiated the
Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty The Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty (also known as the Bidlack Treaty and Treaty of New Granada) was a treaty signed between New Granada (today Colombia and Panama) and the United States, on December 12, 1846.Kellogg Institute at the University of Not ...
with the government of New Granada in 1846. Though Bidlack had initially only sought to remove tariffs on American goods, Bidlack and New Granadan Foreign Minister
Manuel María Mallarino Manuel María Mallarino Ibargüen (18 June 1808 – 6 January 1872) was the 8th Vice President of New Granada, and as such served as Acting President from 1855 to 1857. Personal life Manuel María was born on 18 June 1808 in Santiago de Cali, t ...
negotiated a broader agreement that deepened military and trade ties between the two countries. The treaty also allowed for the construction of the
Panama Railway The Panama Canal Railway ( es, Ferrocarril de Panamá) is a railway line linking the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean in Central America. The route stretches across the Isthmus of Panama from Colón (Atlantic) to Balboa (Pacific, near ...
. In an era of slow overland travel, the treaty gave the United States a route to more rapidly travel between its eastern and western coasts. In exchange, Washington guaranteed New Granada's sovereignty over the
Isthmus of Panama The Isthmus of Panama ( es, Istmo de Panamá), also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien (), is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country ...
. The treaty won ratification in both countries in 1848. The agreement helped to establish a stronger American influence in the region, as the Polk administration sought to ensure that Great Britain would not dominate
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
. The United States would use the Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty as justification for numerous military interventions in Panama.


Independence of Panama and US intervention

The United States first attempted to acquire control of a canal on the Panamanian isthmus via the Hay-Herran Treaty of 1903, but the treaty was not ratified. Desperate to construct a canal, the United States saw the separatist movement as an opportunity. Despite the Bidlack-Mallarino Treaty of 1846 in which the United States would intervene in the event of a disorder between Panama and Colombia in Colombia's favor, the United States prevented Colombian forces from moving across the isthmus to stop the Panamanian uprising. On November 4, 1903, the immediate support of the USA secured the Declaration of Independence of Panama from
Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
. In return, Panama signed the
Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty ( es, Tratado Hay-Bunau Varilla) was a treaty signed on November 18, 1903, by the United States and Panama, which established the Panama Canal Zone and the subsequent construction of the Panama Canal. It was named a ...
three weeks later, granting the USA sovereign rights over the interoceanic canal that would be built over the following decade.


Relations during the 20th century

The evolution of the relation between Panama and the USA has followed the pattern of a Panamanian project for the recovering of the territory of the Canal of Panama, a project which became public after the events of May 21, 1958, November 3, 1959, and then on January 9, 1964. The latter day is known in Panama as the
Martyrs' Day (Panama) Martyrs' Day ( es, Día de los Mártires) is a Panamanian day of national mourning which commemorates the January 9, 1964 anti-American riots over sovereignty of the Panama Canal Zone. The riot started after a Panamanian flag was torn and stud ...
, in which a riot over the right to raise the Panamanian flag in an American school became the vicinity of the Panama Canal. The following years saw a lengthy negotiation process with the United States, culminating with the
Torrijos–Carter Treaties The Torrijos–Carter Treaties ( es, link=no, Tratados Torrijos-Carter) are two treaties signed by the United States and Panama in Washington, D.C. on September 7, 1977, which superseded the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903. The treaties guara ...
, in which the transfer of the Panama Canal to Panama was set to be completed in December, 1999. The process of transition, however, was made difficult by the existence of the de facto military rule of
Manuel Noriega Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno (; February 11, 1934 – May 29, 2017) was a Panamanian dictator, politician and military officer who was the ''de facto'' List of heads of state of Panama, ruler of Panama from 1983 to 1989. An authoritaria ...
in Panama from 1982 to 1989. The 1977
Panama Canal Treaties Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Co ...
entered into force on October 1, 1979. They replaced the 1903
Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty ( es, Tratado Hay-Bunau Varilla) was a treaty signed on November 18, 1903, by the United States and Panama, which established the Panama Canal Zone and the subsequent construction of the Panama Canal. It was named a ...
between the United States and Panama (modified in 1936 and 1955), and all other U.S.-Panama agreements concerning the
Panama Canal The Panama Canal ( es, Canal de Panamá, link=no) is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and divides North and South America. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit ...
, which were in force on that date. The treaties comprise a basic treaty governing the operation and defense of the Canal from October 1, 1979 to December 31, 1999 (Panama Canal Treaty) and a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the Canal (Neutrality Treaty). The details of the arrangements for U.S. operation and defense of the Canal under the Panama Canal Treaty are spelled out in separate implementing agreements. The
Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone ( es, Zona del Canal de Panamá), also simply known as the Canal Zone, was an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the Isthmus of Panama, that existed from 1903 to 1979. It was located within the terri ...
and its government ceased to exist when the treaties entered into force and Panama assumed complete jurisdiction over Canal Zone territories and functions, a process which was finalized on December 31, 1999.


United States invasion of Panama

On December 20, 1989, in order to arrest
Manuel Noriega Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno (; February 11, 1934 – May 29, 2017) was a Panamanian dictator, politician and military officer who was the ''de facto'' List of heads of state of Panama, ruler of Panama from 1983 to 1989. An authoritaria ...
, the United States invaded Panama. The military intervention helped to swear into power the winners of the elections of May 1989, President
Guillermo Endara Guillermo David Endara Galimany (May 12, 1936 – September 28, 2009) was a Panamanian politician who served as the President of Panama from 1989 to 1994. Raised in a family allied to Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias, Endara attended s ...
. The History of the Relations between Panama and the USA are a mandatory course in the curriculum of Public High School in Panama.


Recent history

The United States cooperates with the Panamanian government in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through U.S. and international agencies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong and many Panamanians go to the United States for higher education and advanced training. In 2007, the U.S. and Panama partnered to launch a regional health worker training center. The center provides training to community healthcare workers in Panama and throughout
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
. About 25,000 American
citizens Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
reside in Panama, many are retirees from the Panama Canal Commission and individuals who hold
dual nationality Multiple/dual citizenship (or multiple/dual nationality) is a legal status in which a person is concurrently regarded as a national or citizen of more than one country under the laws of those countries. Conceptually, citizenship is focused on ...
. There is also a rapidly growing enclave of American retirees in the
Chiriquí Province Chiriquí () is a province of Panama located on the western coast; it is the second most developed province in the country, after the Panamá Province. Its capital is the city of David. It has a total area of 6,490.9 km², with a population ...
in western Panama. Panama continues to fight against the illegal narcotics and arms trade. The country's proximity to major cocaine-producing nations and its role as a commercial and financial crossroads make it a country of special importance in this regard. The Panamanian Government has concluded agreements with the U.S. on maritime law enforcement, counter-terrorism, counter-narcotics, and stolen vehicles. A three-year investigation by the Drug Prosecutors Office (DPO), the PTJ, and several other law enforcement agencies in the region culminated in the May 2006 arrest in Brazil of Pablo Rayo Montano, a
Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
n-born drug crime boss. Assets located in Panama belonging to his
drug cartel A drug cartel is any criminal organization with the intention of supplying drug trafficking operations. They range from loosely managed agreements among various drug traffickers to formalized commercial enterprises. The term was applied when the ...
were among those seized by the Government of Panama following his indictment by a U.S. federal court in
Miami Miami ( ), officially the City of Miami, known as "the 305", "The Magic City", and "Gateway to the Americas", is a East Coast of the United States, coastal metropolis and the County seat, county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade C ...
. In March 2007, the
United States Coast Guard The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is the maritime security, search and rescue, and law enforcement service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the country's eight uniformed services. The service is a maritime, military, mult ...
, in cooperation with the Government of Panama, seized over 38,000 lbs. of cocaine off the coast of Panama, the largest drug seizure in the eastern Pacific. Panama signed the Lima Declaration, which has been signed by multiple Latin American countries. The document is a collective rejection of Venezuela's Constituent Assembly and identifies president Maduro of Venezuela as a dictator. In the beginning of August 2017, Vice President Pence visited Panama City, Panama to give a joint statement with President Varela regarding the two countries joint efforts to restore democracy in Venezuela, but more importantly reflect on the relationship between the two countries. In the economic investment arena, the Panamanian government has been successful in the enforcement of intellectual property rights as well as has concluded a Bilateral Investment Treaty Amendment with the United States and an agreement with the
Overseas Private Investment Corporation The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) was the United States Government's Development finance institution until it merged with the Development Credit Authority (DCA) of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID ...
. Although
money laundering Money laundering is the process of concealing the origin of money, obtained from illicit activities such as drug trafficking, corruption, embezzlement or gambling, by converting it into a legitimate source. It is a crime in many jurisdictions ...
remains a problem, Panama passed significant reforms in 2000 intended to strengthen its cooperation against international financial crimes. In January 2005, Panama sent election supervisors to
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
as part of the
International Mission for Iraqi Elections International is an adjective (also used as a noun) meaning "between nations". International may also refer to: Music Albums * ''International'' (Kevin Michael album), 2011 * ''International'' (New Order album), 2002 * ''International'' (The T ...
to monitor the national elections. In 2015, former Panamanian president
Ricardo Martinelli Ricardo Alberto Martinelli Berrocal (born March 11, 1951) is a Panamanian politician and businessman who was the 36th president of Panama from 2009 to 2014. Early life Born in Panama City, Ricardo Martinelli is the son of Ricardo Martinell ...
fled to the United States and asked for asylum. Despite a Panamanian request for extradition on wiretapping charges, Martinelli was only arrested in June 2017 and extradited in June 2018. The delay caused critics in Panama to question about American interference. The United States also worked against improving relations between Panama and China. When a Chinese container ship became the first ship to pass through the new Panama Canal locks in June 2016, US Ambassador John D. Feeley arranged for a US Navy ship to be stationed in view of the Chinese ship. While Feeley expressed concerns about Panamanian plans to establish diplomatic relations with China, Panamanian President
Juan Carlos Varela Juan Carlos Varela Rodríguez (; born 13 December 1963) is a Panamanian businessman and former politician who served as the President of Panama from 2014 to 2019. Varela was Vice President of Panama from 2009 to 2014, and Minister of Foreign ...
denied that anything was happening. Negotiations were held in Madrid and Beijing to escape surveillance by the US Embassy, and the US Ambassador was only told one hour before the public announcement. Ambassador Feeley also persuaded Panama's Security Ministry to deny the Chinese company
Huawei Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. ( ; ) is a Chinese multinational technology corporation headquartered in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China. It designs, develops, produces and sells telecommunications equipment, consumer electronics and various smar ...
a contract for communications technology, which was handed to the US company
General Dynamics General Dynamics Corporation (GD) is an American publicly traded, aerospace and defense corporation headquartered in Reston, Virginia. As of 2020, it was the fifth-largest defense contractor in the world by arms sales, and 5th largest in the Uni ...
.


Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

*
Chargé d'Affaires ad interim Chargé () is a Communes of France, commune in the Indre-et-Loire Departments of France, department in central France. Chargé is a small town near Amboise. The Rock 'in Chargé festival has revitalized the village sinc2006 Population The inhab ...
– Stewart Tuttle


Diplomatic missions

The U.S. Embassy in Panama is in
Panama City Panama City ( es, Ciudad de Panamá, links=no; ), also known as Panama (or Panamá in Spanish), is the capital and largest city of Panama. It has an urban population of 880,691, with over 1.5 million in its metropolitan area. The city is locat ...
, Panama. In 1938, the site in Avenida Balboa was leased from the Government of Panama for 99 years. The chancery building was constructed under the supervision of the Foreign Buildings Office of the Department of State in 1941. The total cost of the land and construction was $366,719. The first diplomatic mission of the United States of America in the Republic of Panama was established in 1904, the year after Panama achieved independence from Colombia on November 3, 1903. The first American Minister was William L. Buchanan of
Covington, Ohio Covington is a village in Miami County, Ohio, United States. The population was 2,584 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area. The village was incorporated as Covington in 1835 on the site of the 1793 Fort Rowd ...
. For many years, The American Legation was for many years located at the corner of Central Avenue and Fourth Street. It was raised to
Diplomatic mission A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually deno ...
status in 1939 and moved to its current location on April 2, 1942. The United States first established a consular office in Panama in 1823 when Panama was a department of Colombia. It became a Consulate General on September 3, 1884 and was combined with the Embassy on April 6, 1942. Earliest available records of the Consulate date from 1910 when the consulate was located in the Diario de Panama Building near the Presidential Palace. It was then moved to the Marina Building across from the Presidential Palace. It subsequently moved to several other buildings in Panama City, before coming to its current location in Building 783, Clayton. There is also a virtual post in Colon. Panama maintains an embassy in Washington.


See also

*
Panamanian Americans Panamanian Americans ( es, panameño-americano, or ) are Americans of Panamanian descent. The Panamanian population at the 2010 Census was 165,456. The largest populations of Panamanians reside in Brooklyn and South Florida. Many Panamanians ...
*
List of ambassadors of the United States to Panama The United States has maintained diplomatic relations with Panama since its separation from Colombia in 1903. The rank of the U.S. chief of mission to Panama was originally Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, but it was upgraded to A ...
*
Panama Canal The Panama Canal ( es, Canal de Panamá, link=no) is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean and divides North and South America. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit ...


References


Further reading

* Conniff, Michael L. ''Panama and the United States: the End of the Alliance'' (University of Georgia Press, 2012
online
* Cordoba, Gabriel Fuentes. "The impact of the Panama Canal transfer on the Panamanian economy." ''Economics Letters'' 211 (2022): 110208. * Dean, Rosetta Sharp. "Panamanian Americans." ''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,'' edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 3, Gale, 2014), pp. 449–457
online
* Dolan, Edward F. ''Panama and the United States: Their Canal, Their Stormy Years'' (1990). * Ealy, Lawrence O. ''The Republic of Panama in world affairs, 1903-1950'' (U of Pennsylvania Press, 1951)
online
* Farnsworth, David N., and James W. McKenney. ''US-Panama relations, 1903–1978: A study in linkage politics'' (Routledge, 2020). * Gilboa, Eytan. "The Panama Invasion Revisited: Lessons for the Use of Force in the Post Cold War Era." ''Political Science Quarterly'' (1995): 539–562
in JSTOR
* Healy, David. ''Drive to hegemony: the United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917'' (1988). * Koster, R. M., and Guillermo Sanchez. ''In the Time of Tyrants: Panama, 1968-1990'' (1990). * LaFeber, Walter. ''The Panama Canal: the crisis in historical perspective'' (Oxford University Press, 1978
online
* Langley, Lester D. "US-Panamanian Relations since 1941." ''Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs'' 12.3 (1970): 339–366. * Leonard, Thomas M. "United States Perception of Panamanian Politics, 1944-1949." ''Journal Of Third World Studies'' 5.2 (1988): 112–138
online
* McCullough, David G. ''The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870-1914'' (1977)
online
* Major, John. ''Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903-1979'' (1993
online
* Major, John. "‘Pro mundi beneficio’? The Panama Canal as an international issue, 1943–8." ''Review of International Studies'' 9.1 (1983): 17-34. * Maurer, Noel, and Carlos Yu. ''The big ditch: How America took, built, ran, and ultimately gave away the Panama Canal'' (Princeton UP, 2010) * Meditz, Sandra W., and Dennis Michael Hanratty, eds. ''Panama: a country study'' (Library of Congress, 1989)
online
* Mejía, Germán. ''The United States Discovers Panama: The Writings of Soldiers, Scholars, Scientists, and Scoundrels, 1850-1905'' (2004). * Musicant, Ivan. ''The Banana Wars'' (1990). * Ryan, Paul B. ed. ''The Panama Canal controversy : U.S. diplomacy and defense interests'' (1977) primary and secondary sources
online
* Sánchez, Peter M. ''Panama Lost? US Hegemony, Democracy and the Canal'' (University Press of Florida, 2007), 251 pp, * Sánchez, Peter M. "The end of hegemony? Panama and the United States." ''International Journal on World Peace'' (2002): 57–89
in JSTOR
* Shaffer, Kirwin. "Anti-Colonial Awakenings: The Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama, 1820s–Early 1900s." in ''A Transnational History of the Modern Caribbean'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. 2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93012-7_5 * Sullivan, Mark P. ''Panama: An Overview'' (Library of Congress, 2020)
online
* Williams Jr, Harold E. ''Panamanian-US Relations Towards 2000: An Opportunity for Partnership'' (Naval Postgraduate School, 1995
online
* Woerner, Fred F. "The Strategic Imperatives for the United States in Latin America." in ''Uncomfortable Wars'' (Routledge, 2020) pp. 57-67. * Yates, Lawrence A. ''The US Military Intervention in Panama: Operation Just Cause, December 1989-January 1990'' (Center of Military History, United States Army, 2014
online


Sources

* (''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.'') {{DEFAULTSORT:Panama-United States relations Bilateral relations of the United States
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...