Dialects
Paiwan variants are seen divided into the following dialect zones by(Ferrell 1982:4–6). *A1 – southern and central **Kuɬaɬau (Kulalao) – used in Ferrell's 1982 ''Paiwan Dictionary'' due to its widespread intelligibility and preservation of various phonemic distinctions; also spoken in Tjuabar Village,Phonology
Kuljaljau Paiwan has 23–24 consonants ( is found only in loanwords, and is uncommon) and 4 vowels (Ferrell 1982:7). Unlike many otherGrammar
Pronouns
The Paiwan personal pronouns below are from Ferrell (1982:14).Function words
Paiwan has three construction markers, which are also known as relational particles (Ferrell 1982:13). #a – shows equational relationship; personal sing. = ti, personal plural = tia #nua – shows genitive / partitive relationship; personal sing. = ni, personal plural = nia #tua – shows that the relationship is neither equational nor genitive; personal sing. = *, personal plural = Other words include: *i – be at, in (place) *nu – if when *na – already (definitely) done/doing or have become *uri – definite future negative marker *uri – definite future marker *ɬa – emphasis, setting apart Affixed adverbials include (Ferrell 1982:14): * **: tomorrow **: yesterday * **: soon, in a little while (future) **: a little while ago * **: when? (future) **: when? (past) Interjections include (Ferrell 1982:12): *ui – yes *ini- no (not do) *neka – no, not (not exist) *ai – oh! (surprise, wonder) *ai ḍivá – alas! *uá – oh! (surprise, taken aback) *ai ḍaḍá – ouch! (pain)Verbs
Paiwan verbs have 4 types of focus (Ferrell 1982:30). #Agent/Actor #Object/Goal/Patient #Referent: spatial/temporal locus, indirect object, beneficiary #Instrument/Cause/Motivation/Origin The following verbal affixes are used to express varying degrees of volition or intent, and are arranged below from highest to lowest intention (Ferrell 1982:37). #ki- (intentional) #pa- (intentional) #-m- (volitionally ambiguous) #si- (volitionally ambiguous) #ma- (non-intentional) #se- (non-intentional) Paiwan verbs can also take on the following non-derivational suffixes (Ferrell 1982:13). *-anga: "certainly," "truly doing" *-angata: "definitely" (emphatic) *-anga: "still, yet, continuing to"Affixes
The Paiwan affixes below are from the Kulalao dialect unless stated otherwise, and are sourced from Ferrell (1982:15–27). ;Prefixes *: used as an inchoative marker with some stems; past marker *: principal, main *: time/place characterized by something *: go past, via; having finished *: go/cause to go by way of (something/place) *: come from *: eat, drink, consume *: get, obtain *: my; I (as agent of non-agent focus verb) *: belonging to a given lant/animalcategory *: to go in the direction of *: (have) come to be in/at *: have quality of *: be affected by, be in condition of (involuntary) *: having reciprocal relationship *: in some general category *: number of persons *: agent marker usually involving change of status (used with certain verbs) *: be gigantic, super- *: agent marker that is usually intransitive (used with certain verbs) *: pretend, claim *: agent marker (certain verbs) *: every *: to cause to be/occur *: emerge, come into view *: put in/on; do something to *: have or produce; acquire *: place where something is put or kept *: do nothing except ... *: having to do with *: do at/during *: do at/in *: wish to; go to, in direction of; have odor, quality, flavor of *: transfer something to; nearly, be on point of doing *: use, utilize, employ *: perhaps, most likely is *: construct, work on/in *: become/act as; one who acts as *: do frequently/habitually; have many of *: people of (village/nation); have quality of; occur suddenly/unexpectedly/unintentionally *: be in state/condition of (involuntary) *: be instrument/cause/beneficiary of; instrument focus marker; belonging to certain time in past *: carry, transport *: your; you (agent of non-agent focus verb); leave, remove, desist from *: remove or have removed from oneself *: past marker *: similar to, like *: be dissimilar but of same size *: our, we (inclusive); more, to a greater extent, further *: take along for use *: most, -est *: be definitely *: reach/extend as far as *: furthest, utmost *: to have just done *: choose to do at/from *: containing *: used mainly in plant/animal species names (non-Kulalao frozen affix) *: be/remain at *: do/use separately; be/do at certain place *: search for ;Infixes *-aɬ-, -al-, -ar-: having sound or quality of; involving use of; ''non-Kulalao'' *-ar-: do indiscriminately, on all sides; ''non-Kulalao'' *-m-: agent or actor; -n- following /p/, /b/, /v/, /m/; m- before vowel-initial words *-in-: perfective marker, action already begun or accomplished, object or product of past action; in- before vowel-initial words ;Suffixes *-an: specific location in time/space; specific one/type; referent focus *-en: object/goal of action; object focus *-aw, -ay: projected or intended action, referent focus *-u: agent focus (most subordinate clauses); most peremptory imperative *-i: object focus (most subordinate clauses); polite imperative *-ɬ: things in sequence; groupings; durations of time The following affixes are from the Tjuabar dialect of Paiwan, spoken in the northwest areas of Paiwan-occupied territory (''Comparative Austronesian Dictionary'' 1995). ;Nouns *-aḷ-, -aly- 'tiny things' *-in- 'things made from plant roots' *-an 'place' (always used with another affix) *mar(ə)- 'a pair of' (used for humans only) *pu- 'rich' *ḳay- 'vegetation' *sə- 'inhabitants' *cua- 'name of a tribe' ;Verbs *-aŋa 'already done' *ka- 'to complete' *kə- 'to do something oneself' *ki- 'to do something to oneself' *kisu- 'to get rid of' *kicu- 'to do something separately' *maCa- 'to do something reciprocally' (where C indicates the initial consonant of the stem) *mə- 'to experience, to be something' *pa- 'to cause someone to do something' *pu- 'to produce, to get something' *sa- 'to be willing to do something' *calyu- 'to arrive at' ;Adjectives *ma- 'being' *na- 'with the quality of' *səcalyi- 'very' *ca- 'more than'Notes
References
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