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The Wayana (alternate names: Ajana, Uaiana, Alucuyana, Guaque, Ojana, Oyana, Orcocoyana, Pirixi, Urukuena, Waiano etc.) are a Carib-speaking people located in the southeastern part of the
Guiana highlands The Guianas, sometimes called by the Spanish loan-word ''Guayanas'' (''Las Guayanas''), is a region in north-eastern South America which includes the following three territories: * French Guiana, an overseas department and region of France * G ...
, a region divided between Brazil,
Suriname Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...
, and French Guiana. In 1980, when the last census took place, the Wayana numbered some 1,500 individuals, of which 150 in Brazil, among the Apalai, 400 in
Suriname Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...
, and 1,000 in French Guiana, along the
Maroni River The Maroni or Marowijne (french: link=no, Maroni, nl, Marowijne, Sranan Tongo: ''Marwina-Liba'') is a river in South America that forms the border between French Guiana and Suriname. Course The Maroni runs through the Guianan moist forest ...
. About half of them still speak their original language.


History

According to both oral tradition and descriptions by 20th century European explorers, the Wayana emerged fairly recently as a distinctive group; contemporary Wayana are considered an amalgation of smaller ethnic groups such as the Upului, Opagwana, and Kukuyana. In the eighteenth century, the ancestors of the Wayana lived along the Paru and
Jari Jari may refer to: Finnish male given name The name ''Jari'' derives from the Finnish name ''Jalmari'', which in turn derives from the Old Norse male name ''Hjalmar'' or ''Hjálmarr'' (''hjalmr'' 'helmet' + ''arr'' 'warrior/army'). This name is co ...
rivers in contemporary Brazil, and along the upper tributaries of the Oyapock river, which nowadays forms the border between French Guiana and Brazil. The first recorded mentioning of the tribe was in 1769 when an expedition lead by the French
botanist Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek wo ...
Patris came across a Wayana village. By the late 18th century, the ancestors of the Wayana were involved in an almost continuous military struggle with
Tupi people A subdivision of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic families, the Tupi people were one of the largest groups of indigenous Brazilians before its colonization. Scholars believe that while they first settled in the Amazon rainforest, from about 2,900 ...
s such as the Wayampi, which drove them across the
Tumuk Humak Mountains The Tumuk Humak Mountains ( nl, Toemoek-Hoemakgebergte, pt, Serra do Tumucumaque, french: Monts Tumuc Humac) are a mountain range in South America, stretching about east–west in the border area between Brazil in the south and Suriname and F ...
to the upper tributaries of the Litani river. Around the same time, the
Aluku The Aluku are a Bushinengue ethnic group living mainly on the riverbank in Maripasoula in southwest French Guiana. The group are sometimes called Boni, referring to the 18th-century leader, Bokilifu Boni. History The Aluku are an ethnic gro ...
maroons, who had fled plantations in Suriname, were driven up the Litani river by Dutch colonial forces aided by Ndyuka maroons, who had settled for peace with the colonial authorities in return for military assistance against "incursions" from new maroon groups. From that moment on, an intensive trade relationship developed between the Wayana and the Aluku, and both tribes often living together in the same villages. In 1815, the Aluku and Wayana became blood brothers. Over time, the Wayana migrated with the Aluku further downstream the Litani and Lawa rivers to end up in their contemporary position. In 1865, the Ndyuka
granman Granman (Ndyuka language: ''gaanman'') is the title of the paramount chief of a Maroon (people), Maroon nation in Suriname and French Guiana. The Ndyuka people, Ndyuka, Saramaka, Matawai people, Matawai, Aluku, Paramaccan people, Paramaka and Kwint ...
Alabi invited a Wayana group still living along the Paru river in Brazil to join them along the
Tapanahony Tapanahoni is a resort in Suriname, located in the Sipaliwini District. Its population at the 2012 census was 13,808. Tapanahoni is a part of Sipaliwini which has no capital, but is directly governed from Paramaribo. Tapanahony is an enormous r ...
river in Suriname, probably inspired by the arrangement with the Wayana that the Aluku had. This particular group still lives in villages along the Tapanahony and Palumeu rivers. Despite limited contacts with outsiders, imported diseases ravished the tribe in the early 20th century, and reduced the population to an estimated 500 to 600 people. From 1962 onward,
American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
from the West-Indies Mission, who had previously worked with the Tiriyó, encouraged the population to concentrate in larger villages and provided access to health care, schooling, and to make it easier to convert the population. The French part of the interior used to be the Territory of Inini which allowed for an autonomous and self sufficient tribal system for the native population without clear borders. In 1968 the Wayana settlements in France became part of the
Grand-Santi Grand-Santi is a commune of French Guiana, an overseas region and department of France located in South America. Most of the inhabitants are Ndyuka Maroons and Surinamese immigrants. History The commune was originally called Grand-Santi-Pa ...
-
Papaïchton Papaichton (unofficial spelling Papaïchton with a trema) is a commune in the overseas region and department of French Guiana. The village lies on the shores of the Lawa River. Papaichton is served by the Maripasoula Airport. The village whi ...
community circle of French Guiana which became separate communes a year later. Along with the commune, came a government structure, and
francisation Francization (in American English, Canadian English, and Oxford English) or Francisation (in other British English), Frenchification, or Gallicization is the expansion of French language use—either through willful adoption or coercion—by mo ...
. In the late 1980s, the
Surinamese Interior War The Surinamese Interior War ( nl, Binnenlandse Oorlog) was a civil war waged in the Sipaliwini District of Suriname between 1986 and 1992. It was fought by the Tucayana Amazonas led by Thomas Sabajo and the Jungle Commando led by Ronnie Brunswij ...
stopped development on the Suriname side and many fled to the French side of the border. The late 20th and early 21st century marked the beginning of (eco)tourism, but also illegal gold mining. Along with miners came the bars, prostitution, and gambling. The Maripasoula commune is sometimes referred to as "Far West" in the mainstream French media, because of its high crime rate.


Society and culture

Wayana society is characterized by a rather low degree of
social stratification Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). As ...
. Villages often comprise not more than one extended family and are rather loosely linked to their neighbouring villages by kinship ties, marital exchanges, shared rituals and trade. Missionaries and representatives of the state have only partially succeeded in grouping the Wayana together in larger settlements, and despite the fact that the Wayana are not as nomadic as before, villages are by no means permanent, and are often abandoned after the death of a leader. Villages are often led by a shaman or ''pïyai'', who mediate Wayana contact with the world of spirits and deities, act as healers, and who are consulted in matters concerning hunting and fishing. Many Wayana villages still feature a community house or ''tukusipan''.


Ëputop

Coming of age Coming of age is a young person's transition from being a child to being an adult. The specific age at which this transition takes place varies between societies, as does the nature of the change. It can be a simple legal convention or can b ...
was for a long time associated with a ritual called ''ëputop'' or ''maraké'', in which a wicker frame full of stinging ants or wasps was applied to the bodies of adolescent boys and girls, who emerged from the ceremony as adult men and women. While older Wayana still to a degree define their Wayanahood by the number of ''ëputop'' they underwent during their lifetime, many younger Wayana reject the necessity of undergoing ''ëputop'' to become a valued member of society. As a result, few ''ëputop'' ceremonies occur today. One of the more recent ''ëputop'' ceremonies took place in 2004 in the village of
Talhuwen Talhuwen, also spelt as Taluwen, Taluhen and Taluen, is a Wayana village situated on the Lawa River in French Guiana. Education Talhuwen features the only primary school in the immediate vicinity. Children from the villages of Kawemhakan and K ...
, organized by Aïmawale Opoya, grandson of Wayana leader Janomalë, in consultation with French film director Jean-Philippe Isel, who made a documentary about the ritual. In spite of its demise, ''ëputop'' was listed on the inventory of
intangible cultural heritage An intangible cultural heritage (ICH) is a practice, representation, expression, knowledge, or skill considered by UNESCO to be part of a place's cultural heritage. Buildings, historic places, monuments, and artifacts are cultural property. Int ...
drawn up by the French Ministry of Culture in 2011.


Political organisation

Before contact with missionaries and state representatives, the Wayana did not recognise a form of leadership that transcended the village level. The Surinamese, French, and Brazilian states preferred to centralise their dealings with the Wayana, however, and for this purpose installed captains, head captains and
granman Granman (Ndyuka language: ''gaanman'') is the title of the paramount chief of a Maroon (people), Maroon nation in Suriname and French Guiana. The Ndyuka people, Ndyuka, Saramaka, Matawai people, Matawai, Aluku, Paramaccan people, Paramaka and Kwint ...
among the Wayana leaders. As the concept of a paramount chief goes against Wayana ideas of political organisation, the authority of these chiefs beyond their own villages is often limited. In Suriname,
Kananoe Apetina Kananoe Apetina (ca. 1885 – 11 April 1975) was a Wayana chief, who first in 1937 was recognized by the colonial authorities of Suriname as a captain, and who subsequently in 1952 was recognized by governor Jan Klaasesz as granman of the Wayana of ...
was made "head captain" of the Wayana on the Tapanahony river in 1937, while Janomalë was made "head captain" of the Wayana on the Lawa and Litani rivers in 1938. After the death of Janomalë in 1958, Anapaikë was installed as his successor, and served as the leader of the Wayana on the Surinamese side of the Lawa river until he died in 2003. Kananu Apetina died in 1975 and was succeeded by Aptuk Noewahe, who is currently recognised by the Surinamese government as the
granman Granman (Ndyuka language: ''gaanman'') is the title of the paramount chief of a Maroon (people), Maroon nation in Suriname and French Guiana. The Ndyuka people, Ndyuka, Saramaka, Matawai people, Matawai, Aluku, Paramaccan people, Paramaka and Kwint ...
of all Wayana in Suriname. The current head captain on the Lawa river is , who was installed in August 2005. The current
granman Granman (Ndyuka language: ''gaanman'') is the title of the paramount chief of a Maroon (people), Maroon nation in Suriname and French Guiana. The Ndyuka people, Ndyuka, Saramaka, Matawai people, Matawai, Aluku, Paramaccan people, Paramaka and Kwint ...
of the Wayana in French Guiana is Amaipotï, son of first granman Twenkë, who resides in the village of Kulumuli.


Contemporary settlements


Notes


References

* Alì, Maurizio & Ailincai, Rodica. (2013).
Learning and Growing in indigenous Amazonia. The Education System of French Guyana Wayana-Apalai communities
. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences ( Elsevier), 106 (10): 1742–1752. . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Wilbert, Johannes; Levinson, David (1994). ''Encyclopedia of World Cultures''. Volume 7: South America. Boston: G. K. Hall.


Further reading

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Wayana People Indigenous peoples of the Guianas Indigenous peoples in Brazil Indigenous peoples in Suriname Indigenous peoples in French Guiana