Origin of the Gurjara-Pratiharas
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The origin of the
Gurjara-Pratihara The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Hindustan, Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj. The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving ...
dynasty of India is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, but have been described as "Gurjara" by their neighbouring kingdoms. Only one particular inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva mentions him as a "Gurjara-Pratihara". According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory (see Gurjara-desha) originally ruled by the Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this tribe. Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or a foreign tribe who had migrated to India somewhere around 5th century. A related question is whether the modern
Gujjar Gurjar or Gujjar (also transliterated as ''Gujar, Gurjara and Gujjer'') is an ethnic nomadic, agricultural and pastoral community, spread mainly in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, divided internally into various clan groups. They were tradit ...
s are representatives of the ancient Gurjara tribe or not.


Earliest mentions of the terms

The earliest mentions of the terms Gurjara, Pratihara and Gurjara-Pratihara in historical records have been analyzed by scholars to determine the origin of the dynasty.


Pratihara

The Gurjara-Pratiharas as well as the Pratiharas of Mandor used the self-designation "Pratihara". They claimed descent from the legendary hero
Lakshmana Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja (). ...
, who is described as the brother of king
Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bein ...
in the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
epic ''
Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
''. The 837 CE Jodhpur inscription of the Mandor Pratihara ruler Bakuka states that the younger brother of Ramabhadra (Rama) served as a ''pratihari'' (door keeper) to his elder brother, because of which his descendants came to be known as Pratihara. The Sagar-Tal (Gwalior) inscription of the Gurjara-Pratihara king
Mihira Bhoja Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE) or Bhoja I was a king belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty. He succeeded his father Ramabhadra. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of ''Ādivarāha'' which is inscribed on some of his coi ...
says that Saumitri ("son of
Sumitra Sumitra ( sa, सुमित्रा, IAST: Sumitrā) is a princess of Kashi in Hindu mythology. The wise Sumitra is the third queen consort of Dasharatha, the king of Kosala, who ruled from Ayodhya. She is the mother of the twins Lakshmana a ...
", that is, Lakshmana) acted as a door-keeper for his elder brother as he defeated the enemies in a battle with
Meghanada Meghanada (), also referred to by his epithet Indrajita , according to Hindu texts, was the crown prince of Lanka, who conquered Indraloka (Heaven). He is regarded as one of the greatest warriors in Hindu texts. He is a major character mention ...
.
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri (12 August 1892 – 15 June 1975) was an Indian historian who wrote on South Indian history. Many of his books form the standard reference works on the subject. Sastri was acclaimed for his scholarship and ...
theorized that the ancestors of the Pratiharas served the
Rashtrakuta Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
s, and the term "Pratihara" derives from the title of their office in the Rashtrakuta court.


Gurjara

The 6th century
Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, nati ...
text ''
Manimekalai ''Maṇimēkalai'' ( ta, மணிமேகலை, ), also spelled ''Manimekhalai'' or ''Manimekalai'', is a Tamil-Buddhist epic composed by Kulavāṇikaṉ Seethalai Sataṉar probably around the 6th century. It is an "anti-love story", a s ...
'' mentions a temple of "Kucharakudihai" or "Kuchcarakudihai" workmanship. Some scholars interpret this word as the Tamil transliteration of "Gurjara". However, Krishnaswami Aiyangar doubts the accuracy of this interpretation. The earliest undebatable references to the word "Gurjara" date back to 7th century: * The word Gurjara occurs in ''
Harshacharita The ''Harshacharita'' ( sa, हर्षचरित, ) (''The deeds of Harsha''), is the biography of Indian emperor Harsha by Banabhatta, also known as Bana, who was a Sanskrit writer of seventh-century CE India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'', ...
'', a Sanskrit work by Bana . The relevant verse describes the military successes of the king
Prabhakaravardhana Prabhakaravardhana (also known as Prabhakara Vardhana) was a king of Thanesar in northern India around the time of the decline of the Gupta Empire. According to the historian R. C. Majumdar, he was the first notable king of the Vardhana dynasty ...
against various kingdoms. It states that the king was a "a lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of
Sindhu The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...
, a troubler of the sleep of the Gurjara king, a
bilious fever Bilious fever was a medical diagnosis of fever associated with excessive bile or bilirubin in the blood stream and tissues, causing jaundice (a yellow color in the skin or sclera of the eye). The most common cause was malaria. Viral hepatitis and b ...
to that scent elephant - the lord of
Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
, destroyer of the skill of the Latas, an axe to the creeper which is the goddess of fortune of
Malava Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also synony ...
". * Chinese traveler
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
describes a kingdom named ''Kiu-che-lo'' and its capital ''Pi-lo-mi-lo''. These two words have been identified as Chinese transcriptions of "Gurjara" and "Bhillamala" (
Bhinmal Bhinmal (previously Shrimal Nagar) is an ancient town in the Jalore District of Rajasthan, India. It is south of Jalore. Bhinmal was the capital of the Bhil king, then the capital of Gurjaradesa, comprising modern-day southern Rajasthan and nor ...
). This kingdom was located in present-day
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
, surrounded by ''Mo-la-po'' (
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
), ''U-sha-ye-na'' (
Ujjayini Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Ujjain ...
), ''Po-lu-kie-che-po'' (
Bharukaccha Bharuch (), formerly known as Broach, is a city at the mouth of the river Narmada in Gujarat in western India. Bharuch is the administrative headquarters of Bharuch District. The city of Bharuch and surroundings have been settled since tim ...
), Fa-la-pi (
Vallabhi Vallabhi (or Valabhi or Valabhipur, modern Vala; Devanāgarī: वल्लभी) is an ancient city located in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat, near Bhavnagar in western India. It is also known as Vallabhipura and was the capital of the ...
), and ''Su-la-ca'' ( Saurashtra). * The 634 CE
Aihole inscription The Aihole Inscription, also known as the Aihole ''prashasti'', is a nineteen line Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India. An eulogy dated 634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his p ...
of the
Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
king
Pulakeshin II Pulakeshin II (IAST: Pulakeśin, r. c. 610–642 CE) was the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka, India). During his reign, the Chalukya kingdom expanded to cover most of the Deccan region in p ...
states that the Gurjaras, the Latas, and the Malavas accepted his suzerainty. According to Puri, the Gurjaras referred to in this record were from Bharukaccha (Bharuch). They are mentioned as "
Samanta Samanta was a title and position used in the history of the Indian subcontinent between 4th and 12th centuryThe Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Volumes 69-70, p.77 to denote a vassal or tributary chief. The term roughly translates to ''neig ...
", and probably owed allegiance to the
Kalachuris The Kalachuris ( IAST: Kalacuri), also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Haihayas or as the Early Kalachuris to distinguish them ...
. Other early epigraphic evidence includes: * The 739 CE
Navsari Navsari is the ninth biggest city in the state of Gujarat in India. It is the administrative headquarters of Navsari District. Navsari is situated between Surat & Mumbai. Navsari is a twin city of Surat. It is located 37 km south of Sura ...
copper-plate inscription records the victory of
Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynas ...
feudatory
Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin The Chalukyas (IAST: Cālukya) of Navasarika (modern Navsari) were an Indian dynasty that ruled parts of present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra during 7th and 8th centuries, as vassals of the Chalukyas of Vatapi. They are also known as the "Ear ...
over Tajika (Arab) army. This inscription states that the Tajika army had plundered the Saindhavas, Kachchhelas (Kutch), Saurashtra, Chavotakas,
Mauryas The Maurya Empire, or the Mauryan Empire, was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in the Indian subcontinent based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until 1 ...
, Gurjaras and other kings. * The Ragholi (Balaghat) copper plates, dated to 8th century on palaeographic grounds, were issued by Jayavardhana II of the obscure Shaila dynasty of central India. It states that his ancestor Prithuvardhana conquered the Gurjara country. * The 808 CE
Radhanpur Radhanpur is a town and a municipality in Patan district in the Indian state of Gujarat. Origin of name According to the tradition, the city is named after Radhan Khan, a descendant of Fateh Khan Baloch. Fateh Khan Baloch received a freedom fro ...
copper-plates of the Rashtrakuta ruler
Govinda III Govinda III (reign 793–814 CE) was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler who succeeded his illustrious father Dhruva Dharavarsha. He was militarily the most successful emperor of the dynasty with successful conquests-from Kanyakumari in the south to Kan ...
describes his subjugation of several kings. It states that on seeing Govinda, the Gurjara vanished - nobody knows where - and even in a dream he (the Gurjara) might not see another battle. Here, "Gurjara" obviously refers to a particular king. * The 812 CE Baroda copper-plates of the Rastrakuta feudatory Karka mentions two terms - Gurjareshvara-pati and Gurjareshvara. According to B. N. Puri, both of these refer to one king. According to R. C. Majumdar, this king was Nagabhata II of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. D. C. Ganguly argued that these two referred to two different kings: Gurjareshvara-pati ("overlord of Gurjareshvara") was a king of the imperial Pratihara dynasty, while Gurjareshvara was a subordinate ruler. * The Arab merchant Sulaiman, in his ''Silsilat Al Tawarikh'' (851 CE), mentions Jurz (or Juzr) kingdom. Jurz appears to be a transcription of the word Gurjara, and refers to the kingdom of Kannauj. * The 866 CE Sirur and Nilgund inscriptions of the Rashtrakuta king
Amoghavarsha Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
state that his father
Govinda III Govinda III (reign 793–814 CE) was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler who succeeded his illustrious father Dhruva Dharavarsha. He was militarily the most successful emperor of the dynasty with successful conquests-from Kanyakumari in the south to Kan ...
subjugated the people of Kerala, Malava and Gauda (or Sauta), together with the Gurjaras who resided in the hill fort of Chitrakuta. * The 867 CE Bharuch grant of Dhruva III mentions that he was attacked by "the very powerful army of the Gurjaras", who had allied with his younger brother. It also states that a king named Mihira attacked Dhruva, but was defeated. According to
Georg Bühler Professor Johann Georg Bühler (July 19, 1837 – April 8, 1898) was a scholar of ancient Indian languages and law. Early life and education Bühler was born to Rev. Johann G. Bühler in Borstel, Hanover, attended grammar school in Hanover, whe ...
and
E. Hultzsch Eugen Julius Theodor Hultzsch (29 March 1857 – 16 January 1927) was a German indologist and epigraphist who is known for his work in deciphering the inscriptions of Ashoka. Early life and education Born in Dresden on 29 March 1857, Hultzsch st ...
, the powerful army here probably refers to that of the
Chavada The Chavda (IAST:Chávaḍá), also spelled Chawda or Chavada was a dynasty which ruled the region of modern-day Gujarat in India, from c. 690 to 942. Variants of the name for the dynasty include Chapotkatas, Chahuda and Chávoṭakas. During ...
(Chapotaka) king Kshemaraja. However, B. P. Puri believes that the army here refers to that of the Gurjara-Pratihara king
Mihira Bhoja Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE) or Bhoja I was a king belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty. He succeeded his father Ramabhadra. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of ''Ādivarāha'' which is inscribed on some of his coi ...
. * The 940 CE Deoli inscription of the Rashtrakuta ruler
Krishna III Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
states that his ancestor
Krishna II Krishna II (reigned 878–914 CE) was king of the Rashtrakuta empire. He throne after the demise of his father Amoghavarsha I Nrupatunga. His Kannada name was Kannara.Reu (1933), p75 His queen was a Haihaya princess of Chedi called Mahadevi. F ...
(r. c. 878-914 CE) had frightened the Gurjara, and humbled the Gauda, the Anga, the Kalinga, the Ganga and the Magadha. Here "Gurjara" and others are names of the countries, which signify their kings. * The Karhad plates of Krishna III state that on hearing about Krishna's conquests in the southern region, the hopes about etainingKalanjara (
Kalinjar Kalinjar ( hi, कालिंजर) is a fortress-city in Bundelkhand, in Banda District of Uttar Pradesh, in India. It was ruled by several dynasties including the Guptas, the Vardhana Dynasty, the Chandelas, Solankis of Rewa, Mughal and ...
) and Chitrakuta (
Chittor Chittorgarh (also Chittor or Chittaurgarh) is a major city in Rajasthan state of western India. It lies on the Berach River, a tributary of the Banas, and is the administrative headquarters of Chittorgarh District. It was a major stronghol ...
) vanished from the heart of the Gurjara. Here, "the Gurjara" obviously refers to a particular king. This king can only be an Pratihara ruler, as no other dynasty ruled these two forts during this period. * The Badal Pillar inscription of the
Pala Pala may refer to: Places Chad *Pala, Chad, the capital of the region of Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Estonia * Pala, Kose Parish, village in Kose Parish, Harju County * Pala, Kuusalu Parish, village in Kuusalu Parish, Harju County *Pala, Järva County, vi ...
ruler
Narayanapala Narayanapala (9th-10th century CE) was the seventh emperor of the Pala dynasty of the Eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions. He was the son of Vigrahapala I by his wife, the Kalachuri princess Lajjad ...
(9th-10th century CE) states that he "scattered" the conceit of the Gurjara-natha ("Lord of Gurjara"). Here, Gurjara refers to a country, and the term Gurjara-natha probably refers to the ruler of Kannauj. * The 954 CE inscription of the
Chandela The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India. The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called ''Jejakabhukti'') between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs. ...
ruler
Yashovarman Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man. Life Yashovarman was ki ...
boasts that he subjugated the Gauḍas, the
Khasas Khasas (Devanāgarī: खश; ') were an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe and a late Janapada kingdom from Himalayan regions of northern Indian subcontinent mentioned in the various historical Indian inscriptions and ancient Indian Hindu and Tibetan lite ...
, the
Kosala The Kingdom of Kosala (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indian kingdom with a rich culture, corresponding to the area within the region of Awadh in present-day Uttar Pradesh to Western Odisha. It emerged as a janapada, small state during the late Ve ...
s, the
Kashmiris Kashmiris are an Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group speaking the Kashmiri language, living mostly, but not exclusively, in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir, India.(a) (subscriptio ...
, the Mithilas, the
Malavas The Malavas (Brahmi script: 𑀫𑁆𑀫𑀸𑀭𑀯 ''Mmālava'') or Malwas were an ancient Indian tribe. Modern scholars identify them with the Mallian people (Malloi) who were settled in the Punjab region at the time of Alexander the Great, A ...
, the Chedis, the Kurus, and the Gurjaras. The Gurjaras here refer to the Pratihars of Kannauj. * The 10th century Kannada work '' Pampa-Bharata'' mentions "Gurjara-raja Mahipala", who is identified with the Pratihara king Mahipala. * The 1047 CE Goharwa inscription of the
Kalachuri The Kalachuris (IAST: Kalacuri), also known as Kalachuris of Mahishmati, were an Indian dynasty that ruled in west-central India between 6th and 7th centuries. They are also known as the Heheya Kingdom, Haihayas or as the Early Kalachuris to d ...
king Karna-deva states that his ancestor Lakshmana-raja (c. 950 CE) defeated the kings of Vangala, Pandya, Lata, Gurjara and Kashmira. Gurjara here refers to the ruler of Kannauj. * The 12th century ''
Rajatarangini ''Rajatarangini'' ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of India, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE. The ...
'' mentions that the 9th century Kashmiri king Shankara-Varman defeated Alakhana, the king of Gurjara. Some scholars, such as Helmut Humbach and G. Djelani Davary, theorized that "Alakhana" is the
Brahmi Brahmi (; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system of ancient South Asia. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such ...
transcription of the Bactrian word "Alxano", and is related to " Hara Huna" (or Hala Huna) mentioned in ancient Indian texts. However, other scholars identify Alakhana as Ali Khan, a ruler of Gujrat in present-day Pakistan.


Gurjara-Pratihara

The Rajor inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva describes him as a Gurjara-Pratihara. According to Puri, he might have been a scion of the Pratihara royal house of Kannauj.


Gurjara: Tribe vs country

The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" in the Rajor inscription of Mathanadeva has been variously interpreted as "Pratihara clan of the Gurjara tribe" and "Pratihara of the Gurjara country". It contains a phrase: "all the fields cultivated by the Gurjaras". Scholars such as Rama Shankar Tripathi believe that this phrase makes it clear that the term "Gurjaras" here refers to a tribe or a group of people, rather than a region. Tripathi further argues that in Pampa's description of Mahipala as a Gurjara king can only refer to Mahipala's ethnicity, and not territory, since the Pratiharas ruled a much larger area of which Gurjara country was only a small part.
Burjor Avari Burjor Avari (1938-2019) was a teacher of South Asian history and educationist of multicultural education at the Manchester Metropolitan University. He received the honour of MBE in recognition of his work in multicultural education. Life and ...
, a historian of South Asia, believes that the Gurjara and Pratihara were two clans among a larger tribal grouping in Rajasthan and that some elements of that larger federation later became known as
Rajput Rajput (from Sanskrit ''raja-putra'' 'son of a king') is a large multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Ra ...
s. Critics of this theory, such as D. C. Ganguly, argue that the term "Gurjara" is used as a
demonym A demonym (; ) or gentilic () is a word that identifies a group of people (inhabitants, residents, natives) in relation to a particular place. Demonyms are usually derived from the name of the place (hamlet, village, town, city, region, province, ...
in the phrase "cultivated by the Gurjaras". In his support, Ganguly cited a verse from Bana's ''Kadambari'', which uses the term "Malavi" ("women of Malva") to describe the women of Ujjain, which was located in the Malva region.
K. M. Munshi Kanhaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (; 30 December 1887 – 8 February 1971), popularly known by his pen name Ghanshyam Vyas, was an Indian independence movement activist, politician, writer and educationist from Gujarat state. A lawyer by profession, ...
similarly argued that the people residing in the ''Gurjaradesa'' (Gurjara country), whenever they migrated to other parts of the country, were known as Gurjaras. V. B. Mishra similarly argues that the expression ''Gurjara Pratihārānvayah'' may very reasonably be taken to mean the Pratihara family of the Gurjara country. Ganguly further points out that several ancient sources clearly mention "Gurjara" as the name of a country or list it among territories. These sources, according to him, include the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, the Ragholi plates, and the Al Baladhuri's chronicle of Al Junayd's expeditions (723-726 CE). Several other ancient sources mention Gurjara as the name of a country. The Gurjara country is mentioned in Bana's ''
Harshacharita The ''Harshacharita'' ( sa, हर्षचरित, ) (''The deeds of Harsha''), is the biography of Indian emperor Harsha by Banabhatta, also known as Bana, who was a Sanskrit writer of seventh-century CE India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'', ...
'' (7th century CE). It is described in detail as a beautiful country in Udyotana Suri's '' Kuvalayamala'' (8th century CE, composed in
Jalore Jalore () (ISO 15919 : ''Jālora'' ), also known as ''Granite City'', is a city in the western Indian state of Rajasthan. It is the administrative headquarters of Jalore District. It has a river known as Jawai Nadi. Jalore lies to south of Su ...
), whose residents are also referred to as Gurjaras.
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
also names Gurjara (''Ku-che-lo'') as a country with its capital at
Bhinmal Bhinmal (previously Shrimal Nagar) is an ancient town in the Jalore District of Rajasthan, India. It is south of Jalore. Bhinmal was the capital of the Bhil king, then the capital of Gurjaradesa, comprising modern-day southern Rajasthan and nor ...
(''Pi-lo-mo-lo''). The fourth book of
Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' (IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, sa, पञ्चतन्त्र, "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story.
contains the story of a ''rathakāra'' (charioteer) who went to a Gurjara village in the Gurjara country in search of camels. A 795 CE inscription of Gallaka states that
Nagabhata I Nagabhata I (r. c. 730 – 760 CE) was a king who founded the imperial Gurjara Pratihara dynasty of northern India. He ruled the Avanti (or Malava) region in present-day Madhya Pradesh, from his capital at Ujjain. He may have extended his cont ...
, the founder of the Imperial Pratihara dynasty, conquered the "invincible Gurjaras". According to historian Shanta Rani Sharma, this makes it unlikely that the Pratiharas were themselves Gurjaras.


Foreign vs indigenous

Among the scholars who believe that "Gurjara" was the name of an ancient tribe, there is disagreement over the original homeland of this tribe.


Foreign origin theory

A. M. T. Jackson Arthur Mason Tippetts Jackson (1866 – 1909) was a British officer in Indian Civil Services. He was a learned Indologist and a historian. He contributed many papers on Indian history, books on folklore and culture and was popularly known as ...
first proposed a foreign origin of the Gurjaras. This view was later endorsed by other historians, including Indian scholars such as
D. R. Bhandarkar Devadatta Ramakrishna Bhandarkar ( mr, देवदत्त रामकृष्ण भांडारकर; 19 November 1875 – 13 May 1950) was an Indian archaeologist and epigraphist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India (AS ...
. Proponents of this theory point out that: * The Gurjara-Pratiharas suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around 6th century CE, shortly after the Huna invasion of that region. They are not mentioned in earlier Indian literature. The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the
Alchon Huns The Alchon Huns, ( Bactrian: αλχον(ν)ο ''Alchon(n)o'') also known as the Alchono, Alxon, Alkhon, Alkhan, Alakhana and Walxon, were a nomadic people who established states in Central Asia and South Asia during the 4th and 6th centuries CE. ...
("White Huns") and native Indian element. In Bana's ''
Harshacharita The ''Harshacharita'' ( sa, हर्षचरित, ) (''The deeds of Harsha''), is the biography of Indian emperor Harsha by Banabhatta, also known as Bana, who was a Sanskrit writer of seventh-century CE India. He was the ''Asthana Kavi'', ...
'' (7th century CE), the Gurjaras are associated with the Hunas. * The word Gurjar has an ending similar to the word "
Khazar The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
" (the name of an ancient Turkic group of
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
and
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
). The ancient Gurjaras might have been Khazars who invaded India as part of a Huna confederacy. Jackson argued that the ancient records do not mention them while describing the Hunas, because they might have been a subordinate to the Hunas. A related hypothesis is that the Gurjaras were a distinct Central Asian tribe who arrived in India soon after the Huna invasion, following the decline of the
Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gol ...
. * Bana names Hunas and Gurjaras together in a verse, among rivals subjugated by the king
Prabhakaravardhana Prabhakaravardhana (also known as Prabhakara Vardhana) was a king of Thanesar in northern India around the time of the decline of the Gupta Empire. According to the historian R. C. Majumdar, he was the first notable king of the Vardhana dynasty ...
. Another argument in favour of the foreign origin theory is the prevalence of seemingly non- Indo-Aryan names among the
Pratiharas of Mandavyapura The Pratiharas of Mandavyapura (IAST: Pratīhāras of Māṇḍavyapura), also known as the Pratiharas of Mandore (or Mandor), were an Indian dynasty. They ruled parts of the present-day Rajasthan between 6th and 9th centuries CE. They first es ...
. This is the earliest known Pratihara dynasty, and according to some scholars such as R. C. Majumdar, the Gurajara-Pratiharas may have branched from this dynasty. Its earliest known member Harichandra was also known as "Rohilladhi"; another ruler Narabhatta had a second name "Pellapelli". According to the
Agnivansha In Indian culture, the Agnivanshi are people who claim descent from Agni, the Vedic god of fire. The Agnivanshi lineage (Agnivansha or Agnikula) is one of the three lineages into which the Rajput clans, the others being the Suryavanshi (descended ...
legend given in the later manuscripts of ''
Prithviraj Raso The ''Prithviraj Raso'' (IAST: Pṛthvīrāja Rāso) is a Braj language epic poem about the life of Prithviraj Chauhan (reign. c. 1177–1192 CE). It is attributed to Chand Bardai, who according to the text, was a court poet of the king. Th ...
'', the Pratiharas and three other
Rajput Rajput (from Sanskrit ''raja-putra'' 'son of a king') is a large multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Ra ...
dynasties originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at
Mount Abu Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at above s ...
. Some colonial-era historians interpreted this myth to suggest a foreign origin for these dynasties. According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the
Hindu caste system The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of castes. It has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mug ...
after performing a fire ritual. However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of ''Prithviraj Raso''. The legend was probably invented by the 10th century
Paramara The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs. The dynasty was established in either th ...
court-poet Padmagupta, whose ''
Nava-sahasanka-charita :Not to be confused with ''Nava-sahasanka-charita'' by Shriharsha ''Nava-sahasanka-charita'' (IAST: ''Nava-sāhasānka-carita'', "the biography of the New Sahasanka") is a Sanskrit-language epic poem written by the Paramara court poet Padmagupta, ...
'' uses it to describe the origin of the Paramaras. The 16th century Rajput bards probably extended this legend to include other dynasties including the Pratiharas, to foster Rajput unity against the
Mughal Mughal or Moghul may refer to: Related to the Mughal Empire * Mughal Empire of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries * Mughal dynasty * Mughal emperors * Mughal people, a social group of Central and South Asia * Mughal architecture * Mug ...
emperor
Akbar Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great ( fa, ), and also as Akbar I (), was the third Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Hum ...
.


Indigenous origin theory

Critics of the foreign origin theory, such as
Baij Nath Puri Prof. Baij Nath Puri (B. N. Puri) (born 26 January 1916, died 1996) was a historian from India. He completed M. Lit. and D.Phil. from Oxford University. He was vice-president and member of the International Board of Editors for the history of Ci ...
, argue that: * The word "Gujjar" or "Gurjar" is a modern derivative of "Gurjara" (resulting from schwa-deletion). The ancient Sanskrit term was "Gurjara", which does not have same ending as "Khazar". Since -jara and -zar cannot be considered as similar endings, the Khazar origin theory is invalid. * The rise of Gurjaras after Huna invasion does not itself suggest a foreign origin for the Gurjaras. The ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
'' mentions the Hunas (in ''
Bhishma Parva The Bhishma Parva ( sa, भीष्म पर्व), or ''the Book of Bhishma,'' is the sixth of eighteen books of the Indian epic ''Mahabharata''. It is the only Parva in Mahabharata where the main hero is not Arjuna but is rather Bhishma an ...
'') as well as several other foreign tribes, but does not mention the Gurjaras or the Khazars. At the same time, the absence of Gurjaras in earlier literature does not prove their foreign origin. They might have been an obscure group, who came to power only after the fall of the Gupta empire. * It seems unlikely that a tribe occupying a position subordinate to the Hunas (as suggested by Jackson) could establish several important kingdoms. For example,
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
's writings suggest that Kiu-che-lo (Gurjara) was a sovereign kingdom ruled by a
Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
. It does not name any Huna overlord of this kingdom. * The 899 CE (956 VS)
Una Una and UNA may refer to: Places * 160 Una, the asteroid "Una", an asteroid named after the Faerie Queene character * Una River (disambiguation), numerous rivers * Una, Himachal Pradesh, a town in India ** Una, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constit ...
inscription states that the Gurjara-Pratihara feudatory Balavarman had "freed the earth from the Huna race" through his battle victories. This again suggests that the Gurjaras were not considered subordinate to the Hunas. * Bana makes a clear distinction between the Hunas and the Gurjaras, and describes several other kingdoms in the same sentence (such as
Malava Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also synony ...
and
Lata Lata (Hindi: लता) is a Hindu/Sanskrit Indian female given name, which means "creeper" and "vine". Lata may refer to: Notable people named Lata *Lata Bhatt (born 1954), Indian singer. *Lata (born 1975), Musician. *Lata Mangeshkar (1929–20 ...
). His writings do not prove that these two groups were related in any way. * The theory about the Gurjaras being an independent Central Asian tribe is pure conjecture, as there is no historical evidence of their clash with any Indian power. Moreover, they would have invaded India through the north-west: it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile
Indo-Gangetic Plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain, also known as the North Indian River Plain, is a fertile plain encompassing northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, including most of northern and eastern India, around half of Pakistan, virtually all of Bangla ...
. The supporters of the native origin theory argue that the Gurjaras were well-assimilated in the Indo-Aryan society, unlike the well-known foreign tribes. For example, historical records mention Gurjara
Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s; such a high
varna Varna may refer to: Places Europe *Varna, Bulgaria, a city in Bulgaria **Varna Province **Varna Municipality ** Gulf of Varna **Lake Varna **Varna Necropolis *Vahrn, or Varna, a municipality in Italy *Varniai, a city in Lithuania * Varna (Šaba ...
status was not accorded to foreigners. There is no record of a Brahmin from Huna,
Shaka Shaka kaSenzangakhona ( – 22 September 1828), also known as Shaka Zulu () and Sigidi kaSenzangakhona, was the king of the Zulu Kingdom from 1816 to 1828. One of the most influential monarchs of the Zulu, he ordered wide-reaching reforms that ...
or
Yavana The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue Yavana in Sanskrit and Yavanar in Tamil, were words used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers. "Yona" and "Yavana" are transliterations of the Greek word for "Ionians" ( grc, ...
groups. But the 1250 CE Tasgaon inscription of the
Yadava The Yadava (literally, descended from Yadu) were an ancient Indian people who believed to be descended from Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Sat ...
king Krishna mentions a Gurjara Brahmin from north India. The Pratiharas worshipped the native gods
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
and
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
, and also patronized
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
. For example, the Sagar-Tal (Gwalior) inscription of
Mihira Bhoja Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE) or Bhoja I was a king belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty. He succeeded his father Ramabhadra. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of ''Ādivarāha'' which is inscribed on some of his coi ...
begins with a salutation to
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
. Moreover, the Pratihara dynasties of Mandor and Kannauj traced their origin to the legendary native hero
Lakshmana Lakshmana ( sa, लक्ष्मण, lit=the fortunate one, translit=Lakṣmaṇa), also spelled as Laxmana, is the younger brother of Rama and his loyalist in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He bears the epithets of Saumitra () and Ramanuja (). ...
of the
Ikshvaku dynasty The Solar dynasty (IAST: Suryavaṃśa or Ravivaṃśa in Sanskrit) or the Ikshvaku dynasty was founded by the legendary king Ikshvaku.Geography of Rigvedic India, M.L. Bhargava, Lucknow 1964, pp. 15-18, 46-49, 92-98, 100-/1, 136 The dynasty is ...
. The Gwalior inscription specifically describes the Pratihara king Vatsaraja as a
Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
from the Ikshvaku dynasty. The Pratihara court-poet Mahendrapala also supports this claim by describing him as a descendant of
Raghu Raghu () is a ruler of the Suryavamsha dynasty in Hinduism. According to the '' Raghuvamsha'', he is the son of King Dilīpa and Queen Sudakshina. His successors styled themselves as belonging to the eponymous Raghuvamsha dynasty, or the '' ...
in ''Viddhasala-Bhanjika'' and ''Bala-bharata''. The proponents of the foreign origin theory argue that such claims are a characteristic of foreign settlers wanting to establish themselves as the natives. But there are several instances of indigenous dynasties claiming descent from mythological Indian heroes. Scholars who identify "Kucharakudihai" mentioned in the ''
Manimekalai ''Maṇimēkalai'' ( ta, மணிமேகலை, ), also spelled ''Manimekhalai'' or ''Manimekalai'', is a Tamil-Buddhist epic composed by Kulavāṇikaṉ Seethalai Sataṉar probably around the 6th century. It is an "anti-love story", a s ...
'' as "Gurjara" argue that it is unlikely that a Huna architect was tasked with the construction of a Hindu temple in southern India in 6th century. However, as stated earlier, the accuracy of this transliteration is doubtful.


Original homeland in India

R. C. Majumdar Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (known as R. C. Majumdar; 4 December 1888 – 11 February 1980) was a historian and professor of Indian history. Majumdar is a noted historian of modern India. He was a former Sheriff of Kolkata. Early life and educatio ...
theorized that the place names such as
Gujranwala Gujranwala ( ur, , label=none; ) is a city and capital of Gujranwala Division located in Pakistan. It is also known as "City of Wrestlers" and is quite famous for its food. It is the 5th most populous city proper after Karachi, Lahore, Faisala ...
,
Gujar Khan Gujar Khan (Punjabi language, Punjabi/ ur, گُوجر خان) is a city in Rawalpindi District, Punjab, Pakistan. It is also the headquarters of Gujar Khan Tehsil, the largest tehsil of Punjab by land area. Gujar Khan is approximately southeas ...
, Gujaratra (a historical region in present-day Rajasthan) and
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
may indicate a gradual migration of a tribe named Gurjara from the north-west to the south. However, he did not believe that this tribe was necessarily of a foreign origin. Historian
Baij Nath Puri Prof. Baij Nath Puri (B. N. Puri) (born 26 January 1916, died 1996) was a historian from India. He completed M. Lit. and D.Phil. from Oxford University. He was vice-president and member of the International Board of Editors for the history of Ci ...
, on the other hand, theorized a migration in the opposite direction. According to him, the tribe would have not left the fertile
Indo-Gangetic Plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain, also known as the North Indian River Plain, is a fertile plain encompassing northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, including most of northern and eastern India, around half of Pakistan, virtually all of Bangla ...
to settle in the semi-arid areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Puri believes that their homeland was the Arbuda region (present-day
Mount Abu Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at above s ...
). He presents following arguments in support of hist theory: * The 625 CE (682 VS) Vasantagarh inscription of a king named Varmalata states that his feudatory Vajrabhata Satayashraya protected Arbuda. The inscription names Rajjila as the son of Vajrabhata; the son of the earliest known Pratihara ruler Harichandra was also called Rajjila. Based on this Puri theorizes that the two families shared a common ethnicity. The Vasantgarh inscription also mentions a Pratihara named Bhotaka as one of the contributors to a temple. Puri reads the name as "Bhota" and pointed out there was a man named "Jhota" in Harichandra's family. He cites this point to further his theory, arguing that the similar-sounding names indicate same ethnicity. However, J N Asopa points out that "Bhotaka" is not same as "Bhota", and the name Rajjila could have been shared by two families of different lineages. * The 11th century
Jainad Jainad or Jainath is a mandal in Adilabad district in the state of Telangana in India. Jainad is well known for ancient Shri Laxmi Narayana Swamy Temple. Demographics According to Indian census The decennial Census of India has been conducte ...
inscription of the
Paramara The Paramara dynasty (IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs. The dynasty was established in either th ...
prince Jagaddeva states that the wives of the Gurjara warriors shedded tears in the caves of Arbuda as a result of his military victories. * The ''Tilaka-Manjari'' of the 11th century Jain scholar Dhanapala also associates Gurjaras with Arbuda. Based on this, Puri proposes that Gurjaras were an obscure pastoral tribe living around Mount Abu area until sixth century, when they gained political power. The term "Gurjaratra", from which the word "Gujarat" is derived, appears as the name of a geographical region starting from 8th century. It appears in the 918 VS Ghatiyala inscription of Kakkuka. The undated Daulatpur grant of Bhoja of Mahodaya, placed in 8th century by L. F. Kielhorn, also mentions a person from Gurjaratra-
Mandala A mandala ( sa, मण्डल, maṇḍala, circle, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for e ...
. The locations mentioned in these inscriptions have been identified with areas around present-day
Jodhpur Jodhpur (; ) is the second-largest city in the Indian state of Rajasthan and officially the second metropolitan city of the state. It was formerly the seat of the princely state of Jodhpur State. Jodhpur was historically the capital of the Ki ...
. Puri theorizes that "Gurjaratra" was originally used as a generic term for any Gurjara-dominated settlement. Later, it came to denote the present-day Gujarat area. Jinadatta-Suri in his ''Ganadharasarasataka'' describes "Gujaratta" as the
Chaulukya The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...
kingdom of Durlabharaja, with its capital at
Anahilavada Patan () is the administrative seat of Patan District in the Indian state of Gujarat and is an administered municipality. It was the capital of Gujarat's Chavda and Chaulukya dynasties in medieval times, and is also known as Anhilpur-Patan ...
. Puri goes on to connect the modern
Gurjars Gurjar or Gujjar (also transliterated as ''Gujar, Gurjara and Gujjer'') is an ethnic nomadic, agricultural and pastoral community, spread mainly in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, divided internally into various clan groups. They were tradit ...
with the ancient Gurjaras.


Capital before Kannauj

The Gurjara-Pratiharas established their control over the important city of
Kanyakubja Kannauj ( Hindustani pronunciation: ənːɔːd͡ʒ is a city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city's name is a corrupted form of the class ...
(modern Kannauj), and are noted for their involvement in the Tripartite Struggle for its control. Earlier colonial scholars believed that before establishing their control over Kannauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas ruled
Bhinmal Bhinmal (previously Shrimal Nagar) is an ancient town in the Jalore District of Rajasthan, India. It is south of Jalore. Bhinmal was the capital of the Bhil king, then the capital of Gurjaradesa, comprising modern-day southern Rajasthan and nor ...
(as mentioned in the writings of
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
). However, the discovery of the 871 CE Sanjan copper-plates and other evidence has now led historians to believe that the original Gurjara-Pratihara capital was at
Ujjayini Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Ujjain ...
(modern Ujjain) in Avanti region. The Sanjan inscription of the Rashtrakuta ruler
Amoghavarsha Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
states that his ancestor
Dantidurga Dantidurga (reigned 735–756 CE), also known as Dantivarman II was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta.Reu (1933), p54 His capital was based in Gulbarga region of Karnataka. His successor was his uncle Krishna I who extended his ...
(r. 735–756 CE) performed a religious ceremony at Ujjayani. At that time, the king of Gurjara-desha (Gurjara country) acted as his door-keeper (''pratihara''). The usage of the word ''pratihara'' seems to be a
word play Word play or wordplay (also: play-on-words) is a literary technique and a form of wit in which words used become the main subject of the work, primarily for the purpose of intended effect or amusement. Examples of word play include puns, phonet ...
, suggesting that the Rashtrakuta king subdued the Gurjara-Pratihara king who was ruling Avanti at that time. In addition, the Jain ''
Harivaṃśa The ''Harivamsa'' ( , literally "the genealogy of Hari") is an important work of Sanskrit literature, containing 16,374 shlokas, mostly in the '' anustubh'' metre. The text is also known as the ''Harivamsa Purana.'' This text is believed to ...
'' names one Vatsaraja as the ruler of Avanti as a contemporary of Indrayudha of Kannauj. Historians have identified this king as the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{ref end Pratihara Empire