Old Egyptian

The Egyptian language or Ancient Egyptian ( ) is a dead Afro-Asiatic language that was spoken in ancient Egypt. It is known today from a large corpus of surviving texts which were made accessible to the modern world following the decipherment of the ancient Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century. Egyptian is one of the earliest written languages, first being recorded in the hieroglyphic script in the late 4th millennium BC. It is also the longest-attested human language, with a written record spanning over 4000 years. Its classical form is known as Middle Egyptian, the vernacular of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt which remained the literary language of Egypt until the Roman period. By the time of classical antiquity the spoken language had evolved into Demotic, and by the Roman era it had diversified into the Coptic dialects. These were eventually supplanted by Arabic after the Muslim conquest of Egypt, although Bohairic Coptic remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Church.The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in ''Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde'', 39 (1901), p. 87. In the village of Pi-Solsel (Az-Zayniyyah or El Zenya north of Luxor), passive speakers were recorded as late as the 1930s, and traces of traditional vernacular Coptic reported to exist in other places such as Abydos and Dendera, see Werner Vycichl
''Pi-Solsel, ein Dorf mit koptischer Überlieferung''
in: ''Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo'', (MDAIK) vol. 6, 1936, pp. 169–175 (in German).

Classification

The Egyptian language belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. Among the typological features of Egyptian that are typically Afroasiatic are its fusional morphology, nonconcatenative morphology, a series of emphatic consonants, a three-vowel system , nominal feminine suffix *''-at'', nominal ''m-'', adjectival *''-ī'' and characteristic personal verbal affixes. Of the other Afroasiatic branches, linguists have variously suggested that the Egyptian language shares its greatest affinities with Berber and Semitic languages, particularly Hebrew. However, other scholars have argued that the Ancient Egyptian language shared closer linguistic ties with north-eastern African regions.

In Egyptian, the Proto-Afroasiatic voiced consonants developed into pharyngeal : Egyptian ''ꜥr.t'' 'portal', Semitic ''dalt'' 'door'. Afroasiatic merged with Egyptian , , , and in the dialect on which the written language was based, but it was preserved in other Egyptian varieties. Original palatalise to in some environments and are preserved as in others.

The Egyptian language has many biradical and perhaps monoradical roots, in contrast to the Semitic preference for triradical roots. Egyptian is probably more conservative, and Semitic likely underwent later regularizations converting roots into the triradical pattern.

Although Egyptian is the oldest Afroasiatic language documented in written form, its morphological repertoire is very different from that of the rest of the Afroasiatic languages in general, and Semitic languages in particular. There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded; the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach; or, as G. W. Tsereteli suggests, Afroasiatic is an allogenetic rather than a genetic group of languages.

History

The Egyptian language is conventionally grouped into six major chronological divisions:

*Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC), the reconstructed language of the Early Dynastic Period,
*Old Egyptian (c. 2600 – 2000 BC), the language of the Old Kingdom,
*Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 – 1350 BC), the language of the Middle Kingdom to early New Kingdom and continuing on as a literary language into the 4th century,
*Late Egyptian (c. 1350 – 700 BC), Amarna period to Third Intermediate Period,
* Demotic (c. 700 BC – AD 400), the vernacular of the Late Period, Ptolemaic and early Roman Egypt,
* Coptic (after c. 200 AD), the vernacular at the time of Christianisation, and the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity.

Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using both the hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts.
Demotic is the name of the script derived from hieratic beginning in the 7th century BC.

The Coptic alphabet was derived from the Greek alphabet, with adaptations for Egyptian phonology. It was first developed in the Ptolemaic period, and gradually replaced the Demotic script in about the 4th to 5th centuries of the Christian era.

Old Egyptian

The term "Archaic Egyptian" is sometimes reserved for the earliest use of hieroglyphs, from the late fourth through the early third millennia BC. At the earliest stage, around 3300 BC, hieroglyphs were not a fully developed writing system, being at a transitional stage of proto-writing; over the time leading up to the 27th century BC, grammatical features such as nisba formation can be seen to occur.

Old Egyptian is dated from the oldest known complete sentence, including a finite verb, which has been found. Discovered in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (dated c. 2690 BC), the seal impression reads:
:

Extensive texts appear from about 2600 BC. The Pyramid Texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from Middle Egyptian, the classical stage of the language, though it is based on a different dialect.

In the period of the 3rd dynasty (c. 2650 – c. 2575 BC), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the third and fourth centuries), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2000 years.

Middle Egyptian

Middle Egyptian was spoken for about 700 years, beginning around 2000 BC. As the classical variant of Egyptian, Middle Egyptian is the best-documented variety of the language, and has attracted the most attention by far from Egyptology. Whilst most Middle Egyptian is seen written on monuments by hieroglyphs, it was also written using a cursive variant, and the related hieratic.

Middle Egyptian first became available to modern scholarship with the decipherment of hieroglyphs in the early 19th century. The first grammar of Middle Egyptian was published by Adolf Erman in 1894, surpassed in 1927 by Alan Gardiner's work. Middle Egyptian has been well-understood since then, although certain points of the verbal inflection remained open to revision until the mid-20th century, notably due to the contributions of Hans Jakob Polotsky.

The Middle Egyptian stage is taken to have ended around the 14th century BC, giving rise to Late Egyptian. This transition was taking place in the later period of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt (known as the Amarna Period).
Middle Egyptian was retained as a literary standard language, and in this usage survived until the Christianisation of Roman Egypt in the 4th century.

Late Egyptian

Late Egyptian, appearing around 1350 BC, is represented by a large body of religious and secular literature, comprising such examples as the '' Story of Wenamun'', the love poems of the Chester–Beatty I papyrus, and the '' Instruction of Any''. Instructions became a popular literary genre of the New Kingdom, which took the form of advice on proper behavior. Late Egyptian was also the language of the New Kingdom administration.

The Hebrew Bible contains some words, terms and names that are thought by scholars to be Egyptian in origin. An example of this is Zaphnath-Paaneah, the Egyptian name given to Joseph.

Demotic and Coptic

Demotic is the name given to the Egyptian script used to write both the Egyptian vernacular of the Late Period from the eight century BC as well as texts in archaic forms of the language. It was written in a script derived from a northern variety of hieratic writing. The last evidence of archaic Egyptian in Demotic is a graffito written in 452 BC, but Demotic was used to write vernacular before and in parallel with the Coptic script throughout the early Ptolemaic Kingdom until it was supplanted by the Coptic alphabet entirely.

Coptic is the name given to the late Egyptian vernacular when it was written in a Greek-based alphabet, the Coptic alphabet; it flourished from the time of Early Christianity (c. 31/33–324) but first appeared during the Hellenistic period . It survived into the medieval period.

By the 16th century Coptic was dwindling rapidly due to the persecution of Coptic Christians under the Mamluks. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church.

Dialects

Most hieroglyphic Egyptian texts are written in a literary prestige register rather than the vernacular speech variety of their author. As a result, dialectical differences are not apparent in written Egyptian until the adoption of the Coptic alphabet. Nevertheless, it is clear that these differences existed before the Coptic period. In one Late Egyptian letter (dated c. 1200 BC), a scribe jokes that his colleague's writing is incoherent like "the speech of a Delta man with a man of Elephantine.”

Recently, some evidence of internal dialects has been found in pairs of similar words in Egyptian that, based on similarities with later dialects of Coptic, may be derived from northern and southern dialects of Egyptian. Written Coptic has five major dialects, which differ mainly in graphic conventions, most notably the southern Saidic dialect, the main classical dialect, and the northern Bohairic dialect, currently used in Coptic Church services.

Writing systems

Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are written on stone in hieroglyphs. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is ' ("writing of the gods' words").
In antiquity, most texts were written on perishable papyrus in hieratic and (later) demotic. There was also a form of cursive hieroglyphs, used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the ''Book of the Dead'' of the Twentieth Dynasty; it was simpler to write than the hieroglyphs in stone inscriptions, but it was not as cursive as hieratic and lacked the wide use of ligatures. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic, known as "lapidary hieratic".
In the language's final stage of development, the Coptic alphabet replaced the older writing system.

Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as ideograms to represent the idea depicted by the pictures and, more commonly, as phonogram (linguistics), phonograms to represent their phonetics, phonetic value.

As the phonetic realisation of Egyptian cannot be known with certainty, Egyptologists use a system of Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian, transliteration to denote each sound that could be represented by a uniliteral hieroglyph.

Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.

Phonology

While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, the exact phonetics are unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. In addition, because Egyptian is recorded over a full 2000 years, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates Old Latin from Italian language, Modern Italian, significant phonetic changes must have occurred during that lengthy time frame.

Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted labial, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants. Egyptian also contrasted voiceless and emphatic consonants, as with other Afroasiatic languages, but exactly how the emphatic consonants were realised is unknown. Early research had assumed that the opposition in stops was one of voicing, but it is now thought to be either one of tenuis consonant, tenuis and emphatic consonants, as in many Semitic languages, or one of aspirated consonant, aspirated and ejective consonants, as in many Cushitic languages.

Since vowels were not written until Coptic, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain and rely mainly on evidence from Coptic and records of Egyptian words, especially proper nouns, in other languages/writing systems. Also, scribal errors provide evidence of changes in pronunciation over time.

The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced.

Consonants

The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme:

*Possibly unvoiced ejective consonant, ejectives.

has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were or . That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which had merged with other sonorants. Also, the rare cases of occurring are not represented. The phoneme is written as in initial position ( = 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel ( = 'bad') and as word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel ( = 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally ( = 'father').

In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, and had merged, and the graphemes and are used interchangeably. In addition, had become word-initially in an unstressed syllable ( > "colour") and after a stressed vowel ( > '[the god] Apis').

In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes ''d ḏ g'' gradually merge with their counterparts ''t ṯ k'' ( > Akkadian transcription ''ti-ba-an'' 'dbn-weight'). Also, ''ṯ ḏ'' often become , but they are retained in many lexemes; ''ꜣ'' becomes ; and become at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: > Akkadian transcription -''pi-ta'' 'bow'.

More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st–17th centuries AD). In Sahidic ''ẖ ḫ ḥ'' had merged into ''š'' (most often from ''ḫ'') and (most often ''ẖ ḥ''). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative ( in Bohairic, in Akhmimic). Pharyngeal ''*ꜥ'' had merged into glottal after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels. is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic , Sahidic and Lycopolitan ''šoʔp'', Bohairic ''šoʔp'' 'to be' < ''ḫpr.w'' * 'has become'.There is evidence of Bohairic having a phonemic glottal stop: . The phoneme was probably pronounced as a fricative , becoming after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian (compare < 'gold' and < * 'horn'). The phonemes occur only in Greek language, Greek loanwords, with rare exceptions triggered by a nearby : < ''ꜥ.t n.t sbꜣ.w'' 'school'.

Earlier ''*d ḏ g q'' are preserved as ejective ''t' c' k' k'' before vowels in Coptic. Although the same graphemes are used for the pulmonic stops (), the existence of the former may be inferred because the stops are allophonically aspirated before stressed vowels and sonorant consonants. In Bohairic, the allophones are written with the special graphemes , but other dialects did not mark aspiration: Sahidic , Bohairic 'the sun'.In other dialects, the graphemes are used only for clusters of a stop followed by and were not used for aspirates: see .

Thus, Bohairic does not mark aspiration for reflexes of older ''*d ḏ g q'': Sahidic and Bohairic 'horn'. Also, the definite article is unaspirated when the next word begins with a glottal stop: Bohairic 'the account'.

The consonant system of Coptic is as follows:

*Various orthographic representations; see above.

Vowels

Here is the vowel system reconstructed for earlier Egyptian:

Vowels are always short in unstressed syllables ( = 'first') and long in open stressed syllables ( = 'man'), but they can be either short or long in closed stressed syllables ( = 'we', = 'to stay').

In the Late New Kingdom, after Ramses II, around 1200 BC, changes to (like the Canaanite shift), '(the god) Horus' > (Akkadian transcription: -ḫuru). , therefore, changes to : 'tree' > (Akkadian transcription: -sini).

In the Early New Kingdom, short stressed changes to : "Menes" > (Akkadian transcription: ma-né-e). Later, probably 1000–800 BC, a short stressed changes to : "Tanis" was borrowed into Hebrew as *ṣuʕn but would become transcribed as during the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Unstressed vowels, especially after a stress, become : 'good' > (Akkadian transcription -na-a-pa). changes to next to and : 'soldier' > (earlier Akkadian transcription: ú-i-ú, later: ú-e-eḫ).

In Sahidic and Bohairic Coptic, Late Egyptian stressed becomes and becomes , but are unchanged in the other dialects: 'brother' > Sahaidic and Bohairic , Akhminic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic ; 'name' > > Sahaidic and Bohairic , Akhminic, Lycopolitan and Fayyumic . However, Sahaidic and Bohairic preserve , and Fayyumic renders it as in the presence of guttural fricatives: 'ten thousand' > Sahaidic, Akhmimic and Lycopolitan , Bohairic , Fayyumic . In Akhmimic and Lycopolitan, becomes before etymological : 'river' >
> Sahaidic , Bohairic , Akhminic , Fayyumic . Similarly, the diphthongs , , which normally have reflexes , in Sahidic and are preserved in other dialects, are in Bohairic (in non-final position) and respectively: "to me, to them" Sahidic , Akhminic and Lycopolitan , Fayyumic , Bohairic . Sahidic and Bohairic preserve before (etymological or from lenited or tonic-syllable coda ),: Sahidic and Bohairic 'to you (fem.)' < < . may also have different reflexes before sonorants, near sibilants and in diphthongs.

Old surfaces as after nasals and occasionally other consonants: 'god' > has acquired phonemic status, as is evidenced by minimal pairs like 'to approach' < ẖnn vs. 'inside' < ẖnw. An etymological > often surfaces as next to and after etymological pharyngeals: < 'street' (Semitic loan).

Most Coptic dialects have two phonemic vowels in unstressed position. Unstressed vowels generally became , written as or null ( in Bohairic and Fayyumic word-finally), but pretonic unstressed /a/ occurs as a reflex of earlier unstressed near an etymological pharyngeal, velar or sonorant ('to become many' < ꜥšꜣ ) or an unstressed . Pretonic [i] is underlyingly : Sahidic 'ibis' < h(j)bj.w .

Thus, the following is the Sahidic vowel system c. AD 400:

Phonotactics

Earlier Egyptian has the syllable structure CV(ː)(C) in which V is long in open stressed syllables and short elsewhere. In addition, CVːC or CVCC can occur in word-final, stressed position. However, CVːC occurs only in the infinitive of biconsonantal verbal roots, CVCC only in some plurals.

In later Egyptian, stressed CVːC, CVCC, and CV become much more common because of the loss of final dentals and glides.

Stress

Earlier Egyptian stresses one of the last two syllables. According to some scholars, that is a development from a stage in Proto-Egyptian in which the third-last syllable could be stressed, which was lost as open posttonic syllables lost their vowels: > 'transformation'.

Egyptological pronunciation

As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in English: the consonants are given fixed values, and vowels are inserted according to essentially arbitrary rules. Two of these consonants known as alef and ayin are generally pronounced as the vowel . Yodh is pronounced , ''w'' . Between other consonants, is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian name Ramesses (Egyptian name), Ramesses is most accurately transliterated as ("Ra is the one who bore him") and pronounced as /rɑmɛssu/.

In transcription (linguistics), transcription, , , and all represent consonants. For example, the name Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC) was written in Egyptian as ("living image of Amun"). Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience, which is an artificial pronunciation and should not be mistaken for how Egyptian was ever pronounced at any time. So although ''twt-ꜥnḫ-ı͗mn'' is pronounced in modern Egyptological pronunciation, in his lifetime, it was likely to be pronounced something like *, transliterable as ''təwā́təʾ-ʿā́nəkh-ʾamā́nəʾ''.

Morphology

Egyptian is fairly typical for an Afroasiatic language in that at the heart of its vocabulary is most commonly a root of three consonants, but there are sometimes only two consonants in the root: (, "sun"--the is thought to have been something like a voiced pharyngeal fricative). Larger roots are also common and can have up to five consonants: ("be upside-down").

Vowels and other consonants are added to the root to derive different meanings, as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afroasiatic languages still do. However, because vowels and sometimes glides are not written in any Egyptian script except Coptic, it can be difficult to reconstruct the actual forms of words. Thus, orthographic ("to choose"), for example, can represent the stative (whose endings can be left unexpressed), the imperfective forms or even a verbal noun ("a choosing").

Nouns

Egyptian nouns can be masculine or feminine (the latter is indicated, as with other Afroasiatic languages, by adding a ) and singular or plural ( / ), or dual ( / ).

Article (grammar), Articles, both definite and indefinite, do not occur until Late Egyptian but are used widely thereafter.

Pronouns

Egyptian has three different types of personal pronouns: suffix, clitic, enclitic (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent pronouns. There are also a number of verbal endings added to the infinitive to form the stative and are regarded by some linguists as a "fourth" set of personal pronouns. They bear close resemblance to their Semitic counterparts. The three main sets of personal pronouns are as follows:

Demonstrative pronouns have separate masculine and feminine singular forms and common plural forms for both genders:

Finally, are interrogative pronouns. They bear a close resemblance to their Semitic and Berber language, Berber counterparts:

Verbs

Egyptian verbs have finite and non-finite forms.

Finite verbs convey Grammatical person, person, tense/Lexical aspect, aspect, Grammatical mood, mood and Grammatical voice, voice. Each is indicated by a set of affixal morphemes attached to the verb: For example, the basic conjugation is ("to hear") is ''sḏm.f'' ("he hears").

Non-finite verbs occur without a subject and are the infinitive, the participles and the negative infinitive, which ''Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs'' calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: past tense, past and temporally-unmarked imperfective aspect, imperfective and aorist forms. The latter are determined from their syntax, syntactic context.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree in Grammatical gender, gender and number with the nouns they modify: ("[the] good man") and '' '' ("[the] good woman").

Attributive adjectives in phrases are after the nouns they modify: ("[the] great god").

However, when they are used independently as a predicate (grammar), predicate in an adjectival phrase, as ("[the] god [is] great", lit. "great [is the] god"), adjectives precede the nouns they modify.

Prepositions

Egyptian makes use of prepositions.

Adverbs

Adverbs, in Egyptian, are at the end of a sentence: For example, in ("[the] god went there", lit. "went [the] god there"), ''ı͗m'' ("there") is the adverb.

Here are some common Egyptian adverbs:

Syntax

Old Egyptian, Classical Egyptian, and Middle Egyptian have verb-subject-object as the basic word order. For example, the equivalent of "he opens the door" would be ("opens he [the] door"). The so-called status constructus, construct state combines two or more nouns to express the genitive, as in Semitic and Berber languages. However, that changed in the later stages of the language, including Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.

The early stages of Egyptian have no articles, but the later forms use , and .

As with other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. It also uses three grammatical numbers: singular, dual and plural. However, later Egyptian has a tendency to lose the dual as a productive form.

Legacy

The Egyptian language survived through the Middle Ages and into the early modern period in the form of the Coptic language. Coptic survived past the 16th century only as an isolated vernacular and as a liturgical language for the Coptic Orthodox Church, Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Churches. Coptic also had an enduring effect on Egyptian Arabic, which replaced Coptic as the main daily language in Egypt; the Egyptian Arabic#Coptic substratum, Coptic substratum in Egyptian Arabic appears in certain aspects of syntax and to a lesser degree in vocabulary and phonology.

In antiquity, Egyptian exerted some influence on Classical Greek, so that a number of Egyptian loanwords into Greek survive into modern usage. Examples include:
* '':wikt:ebony, ebony'' (Egyptian , via Greek and then Latin)
* '':wikt:ivory, ivory'' (Egyptian , via Latin)
* '':wikt:natron, natron'' (Egyptian , via Greek)
* '':wikt:lily, lily'' (Egyptian , Coptic , via Greek)
* '':wikt:ibis, ibis'' (Egyptian , via Greek)
* '':wikt:oasis, oasis'' (Egyptian , via Greek)
* '':wikt:barge, barge'' (Egyptian , via Greek))
* possibly '':wikt:cat, cat''
* '':wikt:pharaoh, pharaoh'' (Egyptian , lit. "great house", via Hebrew and Greek)

The etymological root of Name of Egypt, "Egypt" is the same as ''Copts'', ultimately from the Late Egyptian name of Memphis (Egypt), Memphis, ''Hikuptah'', a continuation of Middle Egyptian (lit. "temple of the Egyptian soul, ka (soul) of Ptah").

See also

*''Altägyptisches Wörterbuch''
*Ancient Egyptian literature
*Coptic language
*Demotic Egyptian
*Egyptian Arabic
*Egyptian hieroglyphs
*Egyptian numerals
*Hieratic
*Transliteration of Ancient Egyptian

Notes

References

Bibliography

*
*
*
*
*
*
*

Literature

Overviews

* Allen, James P., ''The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study'', Cambridge University Press, 2013. (hardback), (paperback).
* Loprieno, Antonio,
Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction
', Cambridge University Press, 1995. (hardback), (paperback).
* Peust, Carsten, ''Egyptian phonology: An Introduction to the Phonology of a Dead Language'', Peust & Gutschmidt, 1999.
PDF online
.
* Vergote, Jozef, "Problèmes de la «Nominalbildung» en égyptien", ''Chronique d'Égypte'' 51 (1976), pp. 261–285.
* Vycichl, Werner, ''La Vocalisation de la Langue Égyptienne'', IFAO, Cairo, 1990. .

Grammars

* James P. Allen, Allen, James P., ''Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs'', first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. (hardback) (paperback).
*Joris Borghouts, Borghouts, Joris F., ''Egyptian: An Introduction to the Writing and Language of the Middle Kingdom'', two vols., Peeters, 2010. (paperback).
* Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, ''How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself'', British Museum Press () and University of California Press (), both 1998.
* Alan Gardiner, Gardiner, Sir Alan H., ''Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs'', Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. .
* Hoch, James E., ''Middle Egyptian Grammar'', Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. .
* Selden, Daniel L., ''Hieroglyphic Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Literature of the Middle Kingdom'', University of California Press, 2013. (hardback).

Dictionaries

* Adolf Erman, Erman, Adolf and Hermann Grapow, Grapow, Hermann, ''Das Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache'', Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1992. (paperback), (reference vols. 1–5).
* Raymond O. Faulkner, Faulkner, Raymond O., ''A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian'', Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. (hardback).
* Leonard H. Lesko, Lesko, Leonard H., ''A Dictionary of Late Egyptian'', 2nd ed., 2 vols., B. C. Scribe Publications, Providence, Rhode Island, Providence, 2002 et 2004. (vol.1), (vol. 2).
* Shennum, David, ''English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian'', Undena Publications, 1977. .
* Bonnamy, Yvonne and Sadek, Ashraf-Alexandre, ''Dictionnaire des hiéroglyphes: Hiéroglyphes-Français'', Actes Sud, Arles, 2010. .
* Werner Vycichl, Vycichl, Werner, ''Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Copte'', Peeters, Leuven, 1984. .
* , ''Vocalised Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian'', SAIS, London, 2016. . [Free PDF download: https://www.academia.edu/24283355/Vocalised_Dictionary_of_Ancient_Egyptian]

Online dictionaries

''The Beinlich Wordlist''
an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German).

''Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae''
an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumenta
Altägyptisches Wörterbuch
of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Berlin, Germany).

Mark Vygus Dictionary 2018
a searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words, arranged by glyph.

Important Note: The old grammars and dictionaries of E. A. Wallis Budge have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase.

More book information is available a
Glyphs and Grammars

External links

Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae: Dictionary of the Egyptian languageThe Egyptian connection: Egyptian and the Semitic languages
by Helmut Satzinger
Ancient Egyptian in the wiki ''Glossing Ancient Languages''
(recommendations for the Interlinear gloss, Interlinear Morphemic Glossing of Ancient Egyptian texts)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Egyptian Language
Ancient Egyptian language,
Languages attested from the 27th century BC
Languages with own distinct writing systems
Extinct languages of Africa