Nymphaea caerulea
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''Nymphaea nouchali'' var. ''caerulea'', is a water lily in the
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
''
Nymphaea ''Nymphaea'' () is a genus of hardy and tender aquatic plants in the family Nymphaeaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution. Many species are cultivated as ornamental plants, and many cultivars have been bred. Some taxa occur as introduc ...
'', a botanical
variety Variety may refer to: Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats * Variety (radio) * Variety show, in theater and television Films * ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont * ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
of ''
Nymphaea nouchali ''Nymphaea nouchali'', often known by its synonym ''Nymphaea stellata'', or by common names blue lotus, star lotus, red water lily, dwarf aquarium lily, blue water lily, blue star water lily or manel flower, is a water lily of genus '' Nympha ...
''. It is an
aquatic plant Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes to distinguish them from algae and other microphytes. A macrophyte is a plant that ...
of freshwater lakes, pools and rivers, naturally found throughout most of the eastern half of Africa, as well as parts of southern Arabia, but has also been spread to other regions as an
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...
. It was grown by the Ancient Egyptian civilization, and had significance in their religion. It can tolerate the roots being in
anoxic The term anoxia means a total depletion in the level of oxygen, an extreme form of hypoxia or "low oxygen". The terms anoxia and hypoxia are used in various contexts: * Anoxic waters, sea water, fresh water or groundwater that are depleted of diss ...
mud in nutritionally poor conditions, and can become a dominant plant in deeper water in such
habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...
s. It is associated with a species of snail, which is one of the main
hosts A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it. Host may also refer to: Places *Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County People *Jim Host (born 1937), American businessman *Michel Host ( ...
of the pathogen causing human
schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever, is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. The urinary tract or the intestines may be infected. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody s ...
. The underwater
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (; , ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow hori ...
s are edible. Like other species in the genus, the plant contains the psychoactive alkaloid
aporphine Aporphine is an alkaloid with the chemical formula . The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) name of aporphine is ''6-methyl-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-4H-dibenzo e,guinoline.'' It is the core chemical substructure of the aporphine ...
(not to be confused with
apomorphine Apomorphine, sold under the brand name Apokyn among others, is a type of aporphine having activity as a non- selective dopamine agonist which activates both D2-like and, to a much lesser extent, D1-like receptors. It also acts as an antag ...
, a
metabolic product In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. The reactants, products, and intermediates of an enzymatic reaction are known as metabolites, which are modified by a sequence of chemical reac ...
of aporphine).


Taxonomy

''Nymphaea spectabilis'', a purple form known from cultivation, and ''N. capensis'', found throughout eastern, central and southern Africa, as well as a number of other named
taxa In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular nam ...
, were synonymised to ''N. nouchali'' var. ''caerulea'' in the 1989 addition to the '' Flora of Tropical East Africa'' (FTEA) series, a position which has generally been accepted, although some of the authorities in
Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
and in the United States disagree. In 2012 there was a
phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
study where ''N. caerulea'' was more related to ''N. gracilis'', an
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...
of northern
Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, than it was to ''N. nouchali''. The evolutionary tree was a consensus of
ITS2 Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) is the spacer DNA situated between the small-subunit ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and large-subunit rRNA genes in the chromosome or the corresponding transcribed region in the polycistronic rRNA precursor transcript. I ...
and matk. According to this study, ''N. caerulea'' should not be considered as a variety of ''N. nouchali''. When
genome In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding ge ...
s from the water lily
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
(''
Nymphaea ''Nymphaea'' () is a genus of hardy and tender aquatic plants in the family Nymphaeaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution. Many species are cultivated as ornamental plants, and many cultivars have been bred. Some taxa occur as introduc ...
'') were published in the journal ''
Nature Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physics, physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomenon, phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. ...
'' in 2020, ''N. caerulea'' was cited under that name, not as ''N. nouchali'' var. ''caerulea''. Another phylogenetic study from 2021 found ''N. caerulea'' (as ''N. capensis'') to be closest related to ''N. colorata'', an east African species. ''Nymphaea nouchali'' is itself a taxonomically challenging species, with a distribution that spans Australia, throughout southern Asia, across Africa to the
Western Cape The Western Cape is a province of South Africa, situated on the south-western coast of the country. It is the fourth largest of the nine provinces with an area of , and the third most populous, with an estimated 7 million inhabitants in 2020 ...
. It has many colour forms (with red-coloured forms generally called ''N. stellata'') and has a long history of cultivation. In Africa, following the 1989 FTEA publication, five different
varieties Variety may refer to: Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats * Variety (radio) * Variety show, in theater and television Films * ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont * ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
are recognised: var. ''caerulea'', the most widespread, ''ovalifolia'', in parts of tropical Southern Africa, ''petersiana'', the same, ''zanzibarensis'', from tropical southern, central and East Africa, and ''mutandaensis'', which is an endemic of
Uganda }), is a landlocked country in East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
. One of these taxa, var. ''petersiana'', was found to be quite divergent in the 2012 study. If the 2012 study is to be accepted, this may indicate that the African populations of ''N. nouchali'' belong to another species than the Asian and Australian type populations, and should likely be renamed ''N. caerulea'' as this name has priority over ''N. capensis''.


Classification

It is classified in the ''Nymphaea''
subgenus In biology, a subgenus (plural: subgenera) is a taxonomic rank directly below genus. In the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between t ...
''Brachyceras''. This subgenus appears to be phylogenetically sound.


Description

This is an aquatic ( euhydrophyte)
herb In general use, herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal ...
with a tuberous
rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome (; , ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from axillary buds and grow hori ...
. That is to say, it has small
tuber Tubers are a type of enlarged structure used as storage organs for nutrients in some plants. They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of the winter or dry months), to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing ...
s that may develop into short vertical rhizomes. It is a
perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
. One plant can spread over an area of about 1 metre. The
peltate The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a single leaf blade or lamina) or compound (with several leaflets). The edge of the leaf may be regular o ...
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
have long petioles and have leaf blades (lamina) which are by cm in size. The leaves are polymorphic, changing in form and texture depending if they are underwater or floating. These laminae have a chartaceous texture and can be
glabrous Glabrousness (from the Latin '' glaber'' meaning "bald", "hairless", "shaved", "smooth") is the technical term for a lack of hair, down, setae, trichomes or other such covering. A glabrous surface may be a natural characteristic of all or part of ...
or densely covered in
pubescent The adjective pubescent may describe: * people or animals undergoing puberty * plants that are hairy, covered in trichomes * insects that are covered in setae In biology, setae (singular seta ; from the Latin word for "bristle") are any of a ...
hairs. The shape is incised-
cordate Cordate is an adjective meaning ' heart-shaped' and is most typically used for: * Cordate (leaf shape) The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a ...
and orbicular or subelliptic, with an acute or caudate apex. The two lobes can overlap somewhat or be slightly apart from each other. The upper surface of the lamina is smooth, but the underside has conspicuously raised, green or rarely reddish or reddish-purple veins. There are eight to eleven primary lateral veins on each side of the midrib. There are six to eight pairs of secondary veins arising from the midrib. The primary veins form a pattern of closed, elongated areas stretching to more than two thirds of the way to the margin of the leaf. The leaf margin is
entire Entire may refer to: * Entire function, a function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane * Entire (animal), an indication that an animal is not neutered * Entire (botany) This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of ...
towards the apex or more-or-less irregularly sinuate-lobulate throughout its entirety. The petioles are thick, blackish green and spongy. They continue to lengthen as they age, pushing older leaves towards the margins of the plant. The
flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s can be blue, white, mauve or pinkish in colour, but are usually have pale bluish-white to sky-blue or
mauve Mauve (, ; , ) is a pale purple color named after the mallow flower (French: ''mauve''). The first use of the word ''mauve'' as a color was in 1796–98 according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', but its use seems to have been rare befo ...
petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...
s, smoothly changing to a pale yellow in the centre of the flower, and are in diameter. There are four
sepal A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 The term ''sepalum'' was coined b ...
s; these are coloured green and sometimes purple at the margins, and are by in size. There are 14–20
petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...
s, of which the outermost are as long as the sepals. Their shape is oblong, and their apexes end in blunt or subacute tips. The
stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...
s are densely congested and very numerous, numbering 100–200 or more. The outermost stamens have long appendages. There are 14–24
carpel Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
s, with a very short
style Style is a manner of doing or presenting things and may refer to: * Architectural style, the features that make a building or structure historically identifiable * Design, the process of creating something * Fashion, a prevailing mode of clothing ...
. There are also carpellary appendages; these are what is known as ' osmophores', structures which serve to attract pollinators without actually rewarding them, thus by deceit. In this case they are visually attractive for bees and exude an odour mimicking food. The flower buds rise to the surface over a period of two to three days, and when ready, open during the mid-morning, closing near dusk. This ability is controlled by the sepals; when these are cut off, the flower loses the ability to close. The flowers and buds do not rise above the water in the morning, nor do they submerge at night. The flowers last some four days before they start to wither, closing up each night. The fruit are berries, 2.2 by 3.2 cm and flattened-round in shape. The seeds are ellipsoid and 1.2 mm long. They are smooth, and have a fleshy, bell-shaped
aril An aril (pronounced ), also called an arillus, is a specialized outgrowth from a seed that partly or completely covers the seed. An arillode or false aril is sometimes distinguished: whereas an aril grows from the attachment point of the see ...
.


Chemical composition

Apomorphine Apomorphine, sold under the brand name Apokyn among others, is a type of aporphine having activity as a non- selective dopamine agonist which activates both D2-like and, to a much lesser extent, D1-like receptors. It also acts as an antag ...
is said to be main psychoactive compound present. Other compounds include
nuciferine Nuciferine is an alkaloid found within the plants ''Nymphaea caerulea'' and ''Nelumbo nucifera''. Preliminary psychopharmacological research in 1978 was unable to conclusively determine the compound's classification in regards to dopamine-recepto ...
.


Similar species

In Southern Africa the only other native species of water-lily is ''N. lotus''; this has night-blooming, usually white flowers. ''N. mexicana'' is a mostly yellow-flowered
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
in South Africa. Most plants are derived from US stock, but a significant number of samples were escaped garden
cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
s or hybrids, some of which may be crossed with native species. These hybrids are often recognisable by their divergent flower colours and forms. In Australia it may be confused with the native ''N. gigantea'', but can be distinguished on the basis of ''N. gigantea'' lacking the petal-coloured appendages on the outer stamens in ''N. caerulea''.


Distribution

The native distribution covers
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
along the
Nile The Nile, , Bohairic , lg, Kiira , Nobiin language, Nobiin: Áman Dawū is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa and has historically been considered ...
and south throughout central,
East East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the fa ...
and
Southern Africa Southern Africa is the southernmost subregion of the African continent, south of the Congo and Tanzania. The physical location is the large part of Africa to the south of the extensive Congo River basin. Southern Africa is home to a number of ...
. It is common in this range. The conservation status has not been evaluated by the
IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
, but it is considered a species of '
least concern A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...
' by the
South African National Biodiversity Institute The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) is an organisation established in 2004 in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, No 10 of 2004, under the South African Department of Environmental Affairs ( ...
in their ''Red List of South African Plants''. On the African continent, it occurs, from north to south, westwards to at least
Chad Chad (; ar, تشاد , ; french: Tchad, ), officially the Republic of Chad, '; ) is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic ...
,
Congo-Brazzaville The Republic of the Congo (french: République du Congo, ln, Republíki ya Kongó), also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply either Congo or the Congo, is a country located in the western coast of Central Africa to the w ...
, the
DRC The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...
(only in Katanga?),
Angola , national_anthem = " Angola Avante"() , image_map = , map_caption = , capital = Luanda , religion = , religion_year = 2020 , religion_ref = , coordina ...
and
Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ea ...
. In South Africa this plant is found in every province, as well as in
eSwatini Eswatini ( ; ss, eSwatini ), officially the Kingdom of Eswatini and formerly named Swaziland ( ; officially renamed in 2018), is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. It is bordered by Mozambique to its northeast and South Africa to its no ...
, but it is not native to
Lesotho Lesotho ( ), officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a country landlocked country, landlocked as an Enclave and exclave, enclave in South Africa. It is situated in the Maloti Mountains and contains the Thabana Ntlenyana, highest mountains in Sou ...
and the
Western Cape The Western Cape is a province of South Africa, situated on the south-western coast of the country. It is the fourth largest of the nine provinces with an area of , and the third most populous, with an estimated 7 million inhabitants in 2020 ...
. It also occurs on islands off the eastern African coast:
Zanzibar Zanzibar (; ; ) is an insular semi-autonomous province which united with Tanganyika in 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanzania. It is an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islands ...
,
Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...
and the
Comoro Islands The Comoro Islands or Comoros ( Shikomori ''Komori''; ar, جزر القمر , ''Juzur al-qamar''; french: Les Comores) form an archipelago of volcanic islands situated off the southeastern coast of Africa, to the east of Mozambique and northw ...
. It is native to
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
and
Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...
(in
Dhofar The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
) in the southern
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate ...
but, according to Dariush Fogholade in a 1980 paper, is thought to have become extinct in the wild in Iran. It has more recently been spread more widely around the world as an
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...
, and introduced populations are now found in
Bangladesh Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
,
Meghalaya Meghalaya (, or , meaning "abode of clouds"; from Sanskrit , "cloud" + , "abode") is a states and union territories of India, state in northeastern India. Meghalaya was formed on 21 January 1972 by carving out two districts from the state of As ...
,
Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
and
Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...
in India,
Fiji Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
,
Mauritius Mauritius ( ; french: Maurice, link=no ; mfe, label=Mauritian Creole, Moris ), officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about off the southeast coast of the African continent, east of Madagascar. It incl ...
,
North Island The North Island, also officially named Te Ika-a-Māui, is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but much less populous South Island by the Cook Strait. The island's area is , making it the world's 14th-largest ...
in New Zealand,
New South Wales ) , nickname = , image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , es ...
and
Queensland ) , nickname = Sunshine State , image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , established_ ...
in Australia,
Cook Islands ) , image_map = Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg , capital = Avarua , coordinates = , largest_city = Avarua , official_languages = , lan ...
,
Costa Rica Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
, and throughout eastern
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
(in
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
and
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
). There is an introduced population of blue water-lilies originally from East Africa in the US in the state of Florida. This was first identified as ''N. zanzibarensis'', then as ''N. capensis'' var. ''zanzibarensis'', but following the 1989 FTEA publication the taxon was moved to ''N. nouchali'' var. ''zanzibarensis''. Nonetheless the 1997 addition to the ''Flora of North America'' series decided to retain recognition of the local population under the name ''N. capensis'', and this population continues to be recognised under that name in the US. The naturalised populations in eastern Australia were also thought to be ''N. capensis'' var. ''zanzibarensis'', then later ''N. caerulea'' var. ''zanzibarensis'', then in 2011 ''N. capensis'', but the plants in the wild are now thought to be ''N. caerulea''. It is considered an environmental weed in Australia.


Ecology

It has a
habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...
consisting of rivers, lakes and pools. As of 1921, it has been found at elevations of in South Africa. Although in cultivation it is said to be quite demanding of nutrients, in the quite nutrient-poor Lake Nabugabo in Uganda it is the dominant aquatic plant species, only being replaced by ''N. lotus'' in the eastern tip of the lake, and other aquatic genera where it is more shallow. The dense monoculture, monospecific stands are associated with an ''Utricularia'' sp. and ''Nymphoides indica'' in one part of the lake, and with ''Ceratophyllum demersum'' in certain other bays. The waterlily stands in this lake are especially poor in invertebrate biodiversity, which may reflect the low levels of dissolved oxygen near the sediments in this habitat. In Lake Bisina, Uganda, ''N. caerulea'' is most clearly associated with ''Utricularia reflexa''; this may be due to similar ecological niches, it may just mean the small, rootless, free-moving ''Utricularia'' simply get snagged on the petioles, but it may indicate some sort of a commensal relationship, with ''U. reflexa'' being shaded by the leaves of ''N. caerulea''. ''Hydrilla verticillata'' is another plant which seems to sometimes occur together with the waterlily in this lake, as well as in Lake Bunyonyi. Pollination is entomophilous. In Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens, South Africa, the flowers are visited by honey bees. In fact, the carpellary appendages in this type of water-lily appear to have evolved specifically to attract bee species in general. In a way, these waterlilies are parasites of the services of bees, attracting the insects by deceit, without actually rewarding them for their labours. In India plants bloom and fruit from May to October. The fruit suddenly bursts when ripe, and the scattered seed float away. The seed soon sinks. Seeds often make it to the river's edge or lake shore, and can build up a significant seedbank here. These seeds only germinate when heavy rains flood the banks, and they are submerged under a layer of water. In cultivation, the plants take three to four years to flower from seed. In colder climates, the plants lose their leaves and go dormant during the winter, with the rhizomes remaining alive below the water. ''Gomphonema gracile'' is an Epiphyte, epiphytic diatom found on ''N. caerulea'' in high elevation Lake Naivasha, Kenya. In Kenya, ''N. caerulea'' is positively associated with the freshwater snail ''Biomphalaria pfeifferi'', which is a main Host (biology), host of human
schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever, is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. The urinary tract or the intestines may be infected. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody s ...
. The edible American crayfish ''Procambarus clarkii'' eliminates the mollusc, as well as feeding on the water-lily. The crayfish was first introduced to Kenya in 1966 as a species with which to enhance the local fisheries. In Lake Naivasha, ''N. caerulea'' was extremely common until the 1970s, and there is still a seedbank around the shores of the lake. ''Procambarus clarkii'' was introduced to the lake in 1970, and now supports an annual harvest of a few thousand kilograms, but it may have been responsible for eliminating not only the water-lily in the main lake by 1983, but ''all'' native aquatic plant species in this water body. It is not the only potential culprit; invasive mats of exotic floating vegetation have also taken over the lake, two different commercially fishable fish species have been introduced, and the new fisheries upon these three species could all be responsible, or a combination.


Uses

The rootstock of the blue water lily was collected and eaten in western South Africa around 1800, either raw or in curry, curries, in particular by the Cape Malays and farming communities in the Cape, although this practice has now died out. Some evidence indicates the effects of plants including ''N. caerulea'' that contain the psychoactive alkaloid
aporphine Aporphine is an alkaloid with the chemical formula . The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) name of aporphine is ''6-methyl-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-4H-dibenzo e,guinoline.'' It is the core chemical substructure of the aporphine ...
were known to both the Maya civilization, Maya and the Ancient Egyptians. The mildly sedating effects of ''N. caerulea'' makes it a candidate (among several) for the fruit of the lotus tree eaten by the mythical Lotophagi in Homer's ''Odyssey''. This lotus has been used to produce perfumes since ancient times; it is also used in aromatherapy.


Cultivation

It is grown as an
ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...
for water gardens in tropical to subtropical regions around the world. It is easy to grow in ponds in any part of Southern Africa, including the highveld, and is Hardiness (plants), hardy to -1 °C. 'Valentina's Pale Blue Eyes' is a registered
cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
of this species from 2018, bred in Italy partially from a clone known as 'Rwanda'.


Religion and art

Along with the white lotus, ''Nymphaea lotus'', also native to Egypt, the plant and flower are very frequently depicted in Ancient Egyptian art. They have been depicted in numerous stone carvings and paintings, including the walls of the temple of Karnak, and may be associated with rites pertaining to the afterlife. A number of pharaohs' mummies were covered with the petals of the flower. There are indications it was grown in special farms over 4,000 years ago to produce enough flowers for votive offerings, although it was apparently also simply grown as an ornamental in traditional Egyptian garden ponds. ''N. caerulea'' was considered extremely significant in Egyptian mythology, regarded as a symbol of the sun, since the flowers are closed at night and open again in the morning. At Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt), Heliopolis, the origin of the world was taught to have been when the sun god Ra emerged from a lotus flower growing in "primordial waters". At night, he was believed to retreat into the flower again. Due to its colour, it was identified, in some beliefs, as having been the original container, in a similar manner to an egg, of Atum, and in similar beliefs Ra, both solar deity, solar deities. As such, its properties form the origin of the "lotus variant" of the Ogdoad (Egyptian), Ogdoad cosmogeny. It was the symbol of the Egyptian deity Nefertem.


Legal issues

''Nymphaea caerulea'' is illegal in Latvia since November 2009. It is a schedule 1 drug. Possession of quantities up to 1 gram are fined up to 280 euros, for second offences within a year period criminal charges are applied. Possession of larger quantities can be punished by up to 15 years in prison. The plant was banned in Poland in March 2009. Possession and distribution lead to a criminal charge.Dz.U. 2009 nr 63 poz. 520
Internetowy System Aktów Prawnych.
''N. caerulea'' is illegal in Russia since April 2009 along with related products such as ''Salvia divinorum, Argyreia nervosa'' and others.


See also

*List of plants known as lotus *''Fleur-de-lis'' *''Nymphaea capensis'', cape blue water lily *''Nymphaea lotus'', the Egyptian white water lily *''
Nymphaea nouchali ''Nymphaea nouchali'', often known by its synonym ''Nymphaea stellata'', or by common names blue lotus, star lotus, red water lily, dwarf aquarium lily, blue water lily, blue star water lily or manel flower, is a water lily of genus '' Nympha ...
'', the star lotus, in Sanskrit ''utpala'' *Palmette *''Sacred Weeds'', a Channel 4 TV series examining the effects of various psychoactive plants (including the blue lily) on volunteers * List of plants known as lily


Notes


References


External links


Erowid Vault about Blue Lotus
{{Taxonbar Entheogens Nymphaea, caerulea Flora of Africa Flora of Asia