Novial language
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Novial is an
international auxiliary language An international auxiliary language (sometimes acronymized as IAL or contracted as auxlang) is a language meant for communication between people from different nations, who do not share a common first language. An auxiliary language is primarily a ...
(IAL) created by Danish linguist
Otto Jespersen Jens Otto Harry Jespersen (; 16 July 1860 – 30 April 1943) was a Danish linguist who worked in foreign-language pedagogy, historical phonetics, and other areas, but is best known for his description of the grammar of the English language. Ste ...
in 1928. It was designed to facilitate human communication between speakers of different native languages. The name of the language is a blend of the Novial word ''novi'' (meaning 'new") and IAL. Jespersen had been an early supporter of another international auxiliary language,
Ido Ido () is a constructed language derived from a reformed version of Esperanto, and designed similarly with the goal of being a universal second language for people of diverse languages. To function as an effective ''international auxiliary ...
, a reformed version of
Esperanto Esperanto (, ) is the world's most widely spoken Constructed language, constructed international auxiliary language. Created by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887 to be 'the International Language' (), it is intended to be a universal second language for ...
, before leaving to create his own language in 1928. Novial's vocabulary is borrowed largely from the
Romance Romance may refer to: Common meanings * Romance (love), emotional attraction towards another person and the courtship behaviors undertaken to express the feelings ** Romantic orientation, the classification of the sex or gender with which a pers ...
and Germanic languages, while its
analytic Analytic or analytical may refer to: Chemistry * Analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to learn their chemical composition and structure * Analytical technique, a method that is used to determine the concentration of a chemical ...
grammar is influenced by English. Novial was introduced in Jespersen's book ''An International Language'' in 1928. It was updated in his dictionary ''Novial Lexike'' in 1930, and further modifications were proposed in the 1930s, but the language became dormant with Jespersen's death in 1943. In the 1990s, with the revival of interest in constructed languages brought on by the
Internet The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...
, some people rediscovered Novial.


Phonology


Consonants


Vowels


Stress

The basic rule is: stress the vowel before the last consonant. However, consonantal flexional endings (ie. ''-d'', ''-m'', ''-n'', ''-s'') do not count for this (eg. but , not ; but , not ) so perhaps it is better to say that the vowel before the final consonant of the stem takes the stress.


Orthography

The digraphs '' ch'' and '' sh'' represent or , depending on the speaker. For example, would be pronounced either or .


Grammar

Like many constructed IALs, Novial has a simple and regular grammar. The main
word order In linguistics, word order (also known as linear order) is the order of the syntactic constituents of a language. Word order typology studies it from a cross-linguistic perspective, and examines how languages employ different orders. Correlatio ...
is SVO, which removes the need for marking the object of a sentence with
accusative case In grammar, the accusative case ( abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb. In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: "me", "him", "he ...
(since the position normally tells what word is the object). There is however a way to mark accusative. There is no grammatical gender (but the sex or gender of referrents can be marked). Verbs are conjugated without
agreement Agreement may refer to: Agreements between people and organizations * Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law * Trade agreement, between countries * Consensus (disambiguation), a decision-making process * Contract, enforceable in a court of ...
(according to person or number), and have a regular conjugation. Nouns mainly end in ''e'', ''a'', ''o'', ''u'' or ''um'' in the singular. There are definite forms of nouns marked with an article, and singular and plural forms, where the plural is marked with the suffix after vowels or after consonants. There is also a form for indefinite number (like in Mandarin Chinese and Japanese), expressed by removing the ending of the noun in the singular ( – lion, – 'a/the lion is cruel', or 'lions are cruel'). If a noun refers to a living being, then the form ending in is neutral in regards to sex, the one ending in female, and the one ending in male. If the noun is based on an adjective, nouns referring to living beings can be made with the previously mentioned rule, and furthermore nouns referring to concrete objects with , and abstractions with . The third person pronouns follows the same rule, together with the definite article. In the case of a noun that refers to an instrument – a tool or a means – the word that ends in is the tool or the means itself, the verb describing usage of the tool and so on, and the noun describing the act of that using:


Personal pronouns

The standard
word order In linguistics, word order (also known as linear order) is the order of the syntactic constituents of a language. Word order typology studies it from a cross-linguistic perspective, and examines how languages employ different orders. Correlatio ...
in Novial is subject–verb–object, as in English. Therefore, the object need not be marked to distinguish it from the subject, and nominative (I, he, she and so on) and oblique (me, him, her) pronouns are identical: The accusative (direct object) is therefore most often identical to the nominative (subject). However, in case of an ambiguity problem, an optional accusative ending, ( after a consonant), is available but is rarely used. The preposition is equivalent to this ending. The personal possessive adjectives are formed from the pronouns by adding or after a consonant . This is in fact the genitive (possessive) of the pronoun so means both 'my' and 'mine' ('of me'): The possessive pronouns are thus , , , etc., and , , etc. and . Possession may also be expressed with the preposition : , , and so on. The reflexive pronoun is : – 'he admires himself'. The impersonal pronoun one ('one/they/you') is , with the possessive form .


Verbs

Verb forms never change with person or number. Most verb tenses, moods and voices are expressed with auxiliary verbs preceding the root form of the main verb. The auxiliaries follow the same word order as the English equivalent. The following phrases give examples of the verb forms: * Present active participle: – 'protecting' * Past passive participle: – 'protected' Novial clearly distinguishes the passive of becoming and the passive of being. In English the forms are often the same, using the auxiliary verb ''to be'' followed by the past participle. However, the passive of becoming is also often expressed with the verb ''to get'' which is used in the examples below. The passive voice of becoming is formed with the auxiliary followed by the root verb form. It can then be conjugated into the previously mentioned forms, for example: The passive voice of being is formed with the auxiliary followed by the past passive participle (stem + ''-t''). For example:


Articles

The definite article is which is invariant. It is used as in English. There is no indefinite article, although ('one') can be used.


Nouns

The plural noun is formed by adding to the singular ( after a consonant). The
accusative case In grammar, the accusative case ( abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb. In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: "me", "him", "he ...
is generally identical to the
nominative In grammar, the nominative case ( abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case, or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb, or (in Latin and formal variants of E ...
but can optionally be marked with the ending ( after a consonant) with the plural being ( after a consonant) or with the preposition . The genitive is formed with the ending ( after a consonant) with the plural being ( after a consonant) or with the preposition . Other cases are formed with prepositions.


Adjectives

All adjectives end in , but this may be dropped if it is easy enough to pronounce and no confusion will be caused. Adjectives precede the noun qualified. Adjectives do not agree with the noun but may be given noun endings if there is no noun present to receive them. Comparative adjectives are formed by placing various particles (, , and ) in front of the adjective receiving the comparison. Likewise, the superlative particles ( and ) precede the adjective. The adjective does not receive an inflection to its ending.


Adverbs

An adjective is converted to a corresponding adverb by adding after the ending of the adjective. Comparative and superlative adverbs are formed in the same manner as comparative and superlative adjectives: by placing a specific particle before the adverb receiving the comparison.


Vocabulary


Affixes

See the Table of Prefixes and Table of Suffixes at the Novial Wikibook.


Novial compared to Esperanto and Ido

Jespersen was a professional linguist, unlike Esperanto's creator. He disliked the arbitrary and artificial character that he found in Esperanto and Ido. Additionally, he objected to those languages'
inflection In linguistic Morphology (linguistics), morphology, inflection (less commonly, inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical category, grammatical categories such as grammatical tense, ...
al systems, which he found needlessly complex. He sought to make Novial at once euphonious and regular while also preserving useful structures from natural languages. In Novial: * Syntax is largely a matter of word order, as in English and modern
Scandinavian language The North Germanic languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages—a sub-family of the Indo-European languages—along with the West Germanic languages and the extinct East Germanic languages. The language group is also r ...
s. There is no obligatory
accusative In grammar, the accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb. In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: "me", "him", "her", " ...
marker as in Esperanto, but the accusative may optionally be marked with either an accusative ending or an accusative preposition. * A
genitive In grammar, the genitive case ( abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can ...
or
possessive case A possessive or ktetic form (abbreviated or ; from ; ) is a word or grammatical construction indicating a relationship of possession in a broad sense. This can include strict ownership, or a number of other types of relation to a greater or les ...
is available as an alternative to the preposition . This is based on Jespersen's observation that many modern languages have lost complex noun inflections, yet retain a possessive form. * Auxiliary particles express most
verb A verb is a word that generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual description of English, the basic f ...
tenses. An inflectional ending is available as a shorthand for the simple
past tense The past tense is a grammatical tense whose function is to place an action or situation in the past. Examples of verbs in the past tense include the English verbs ''sang'', ''went'' and ''washed''. Most languages have a past tense, with some hav ...
. A major difference between Novial and Esperanto/Ido concerns
noun In grammar, a noun is a word that represents a concrete or abstract thing, like living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, and ideas. A noun may serve as an Object (grammar), object or Subject (grammar), subject within a p ...
endings. Jespersen rejected a single vowel to terminate all nouns (-o in Esperanto/Ido), finding it unnatural and potentially confusing. Instead, Novial nouns may end in , , , or or . These endings may be taken to indicate natural sex according to the custom in Romance languages, though there is no grammatical gender or requirement for
adjective An adjective (abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a word that describes or defines a noun or noun phrase. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun. Traditionally, adjectives are considered one of the main part of speech, parts of ...
s to agree with nouns.


Language sample for comparison

Here is
the Lord's Prayer The Lord's Prayer, also known by its incipit Our Father (, ), is a central Christian prayer attributed to Jesus. It contains petitions to God focused on God’s holiness, will, and kingdom, as well as human needs, with variations across manusc ...
in Novial and several related languages:


Criticism

As Jespersen relates in his autobiography, in 1934 he proposed an orthographic reform to Novial, which displeased a part of the users. Jespersen abandoned the essential principle of ''one sound, one letter'' :Jespersen, Otto (1995
938 Year 938 ( CMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * Summer – The Hungarian army invades Northern Italy with the permission of King Hugh of Arles. They cross the Apennin ...
. ''A linguist’s life: an English translation of Otto Jerpersen’s autobiography'' 'En Sprogmands Levned''''with notes, photos and a bibliography''. Edited by Arne Juul, Hans F. Nielsen, Jørgen Erik Nielsen. Odense: Odense University Press. .
Some of Jespersen's colleagues among philologists jokingly referred to Novial as ''Jesperanto'', combining his surname with
Esperanto Esperanto (, ) is the world's most widely spoken Constructed language, constructed international auxiliary language. Created by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887 to be 'the International Language' (), it is intended to be a universal second language for ...
, the prototypical auxiliary language.


See also

* Comparison between Esperanto and Novial * Comparison between Ido and Novial


Notes


References


External links


A summary of 1928 Novial





Novial Lexike: International Dictionary
by Otto Jespersen, 1930
Discussiones inter E. de Wahl e O. Jespersen
{{Authority control Constructed languages Constructed languages introduced in the 1920s 1928 introductions Otto Jespersen