The field of
music education contains a number of
learning theories that specify how students learn music based on behavioral and
cognitive psychology.
[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 279]
/ref>
Classical learning theory
While formal music education has roots going at least as far back as the Hebrews in Egypt[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 5.] or the ancient Greeks,[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 9.] challenges arose as music became more specialized and technically complex after the 5th century BCE in Ancient Greece and as the development of notation shifted music education from training in singing to training in music reading.[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 24–25.] Educators and theorists such as Odo of Cluny
Odo of Cluny (French: ''Odon'') ( 878 – 18 November 942) was the second abbot of Cluny. He enacted various reforms in the Cluniac system of France and Italy. He is venerated as a saint by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. His feast da ...
and Guido d'Arezzo
Guido of Arezzo ( it, Guido d'Arezzo; – after 1033) was an Italian music theorist and pedagogue of High medieval music. A Benedictine monk, he is regarded as the inventor—or by some, developer—of the modern staff notation that had a ma ...
in the 10th and 11th centuries explored methods to teach these new developing notational practices.Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
as universities abandoned music as a part of their curriculum in the mid 16th century,[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 29–30.] while the Protestant Reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and ...
later brought some changes to music education, Martin Luther
Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Lutherani ...
among other individuals suggesting that music, poetry, and history be added to standard education curriculum.[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 32.] In the 17th century, John Amos Comenius
John Amos Comenius (; cs, Jan Amos Komenský; pl, Jan Amos Komeński; german: Johann Amos Comenius; Latinization (literature), Latinized: ''Ioannes Amos Comenius''; 28 March 1592 – 15 November 1670) was a Czech Philosophy, philosopher, Ped ...
recommended music education for religious purposes and designed a methodology to do so, as Richard Mulcaster encouraged universal education including singing and playing as standard curriculum.[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 34–36.] By the 19th century the conservatory model became more common outside of Italy alongside a number of choir schools which provided education as well as practical music experience.[Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, ''A History of American Music Education, Third Edition'' (2007: New York: Rowman & Littlefield Education), 38.]
20th century
Mainstream pedagogy and examination of how students learn theory rose to prominence in the 20th century by theorists and educators beginning with Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, Zoltán Kodály, and Carl Orff, and followed by Shinichi Suzuki (violinist), Shinichi Suzuki, Edwin Gordon, and Valeri Brainin among others. Later research into learning theory (education), educational learning theories in the 1960s places emphasis on Behaviorism, behavioral, Cognitivism (psychology), cognitive, and Constructivism (philosophy of education), constructivist thinking.[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 280]
/ref> The Tanglewood Symposium of 1967 and the Music Educators National Conference Goals and Objective Project in 1969 were other early examples of the growing movement of applying modern developments in sequencing curriculum.[Mark, M. Contemporary music education (2nd ed.) (New York: Schirmer Books, 1986)]
Behavioral learning theories and music education
Behaviorism examines relationships between the environment and the individual with roots in early 20th century work in the German experimental school.[Lynn Dierking, "Learning Theory and Learning Styles: An Overview," ''The Journal of Museum Education'' Vol. 16, No. 1 (1991): 4–6.] Theories by researchers such as Ivan Pavlov (who introduced classical conditioning), and B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning) looked at how environmental stimulation could impact learning, theorists building on these concepts to make applications to music learning. The research of Clifford Madsen, Robert Duke, Harry Price, and Cornelia Yarbrough build on the operant conditioning model focusing on guiding "good" or "successful" teaching by analyzing the role of appropriate reinforcement such as praise and feedback on musical discrimination, attitude, and performance.[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 281]
/ref> Later studies also examined music itself as a mechanism of reinforcement, such as research by Greer (1981) and Madsen (1981).
Cognitive learning theories and music education
Cognitivism (psychology), Cognitive theories of learning, often viewed as the antithesis of behavioral theories,[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 282]
/ref> attempt to map how individual learning processes relate to already-familiar knowledge.[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 283]
/ref>
Other cognitive learning theories are also based on research in early childhood education, motor learning, lateralization of brain function, hemispheric dominance, and information theory.[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 284]
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Constructivist learning theories and music education
Constructivism (philosophy of education), Constructivist theories of learning, largely developed by Jean Piaget,[Ernst von Glasersfeld, "An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like It Radical". ''Journal for Research In Mathematics Education,'' Monograph 4, (1990): 19–29 & 195–210. ISSN 0883-9530]
/ref> accept the relation between the individual and the environment as crucial for understanding the process of learning in a more holistic perspective than cognitive and behavioral models.[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 284–285]
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Modern constructivist applications to music education include research by Roger A. Rideout, Stephen P. Paul, Geraint Wiggins and others.[Laurie Taetle and Robert Cutietta, ''Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research'', 285]
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Sound before sight
Contemporary music pedagogies emphasize ''sound before sight'', or the idea that in order to develop an understanding of music and music notation, individuals must first become comfortable with listening to, singing, and performing tonal and rhythm patterns before reading and writing music.[Peggy Dettwiler, "Developing Aural Skills Through Vocal Warm-Ups: Historical Approach of Pedagogical Approaches and Applications for Choral Directors," ''The Choral Journal,'' Vol. 30, No. 3 (1989): 13–15, 17–20]
/ref>[Alice M. Hammel, "Review Work: The Development and Practical Application of Music Learning Theory by Maria Runfola, Cynthia Crump Taggart," ''Music Educators Journal,'' Vol. 92, No. 5 (2006): 22–23]
/ref>[Ann Marie Musco, "Playing by Ear: Is Expert Opinion Supported by Research?" ''Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,'' No. 184 (2010): 49–64]
/ref> Modern studies by Luce (1965), McPherson (1993, 1995, 2005), and Bernhard (2004) all suggest a significant positive correlation with playing by ear and the ability to sight read,[Ann Marie Musco, "Playing by Ear: Is Expert Opinion Supported by Research?" ''Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,'' No. 184 (2010): 54–54]
/ref> and experimental research by Haston (2004) and Musco (2006) also suggest that spending classroom time playing by ear does not negatively impact students' abilities to develop music reading skills.[Ann Marie Musco, "Playing by Ear: Is Expert Opinion Supported by Research?" ''Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,'' No. 184 (2010): 57–58]
/ref>
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Music Education
Music education, *
Music theory