Tāj al-Dīn Abū al-Fath Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī ( ar, تاج الدين أبو الفتح محمد بن عبد الكريم الشهرستاني; 1086–1153 CE), also known as Muhammad al-Shahrastānī, was an influential Persian historian of religions, a historiographer,
Islamic scholar
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
, philosopher and theologian. His book, '' Kitab al–Milal wa al-Nihal'' (lit. ''The Book of Sects and Creeds'') was one of the pioneers in developing an objective and philosophical approach to the study of religions.
Life
Very few things are known about al-Shahrastānī's life. He was born in 1086 CE A.H., in the town of Shahristān, (
Khorasan
Khorasan may refer to:
* Greater Khorasan, a historical region which lies mostly in modern-day northern/northwestern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan
* Khorasan Province, a pre-2004 province of Ira ...
, province of Persia) where he acquired his early traditional education. Later, he was sent to Nīshāpūr where he studied under different masters who were all disciples of the Ash`ari theologian
al-Juwaynī
Dhia' ul-Dīn 'Abd al-Malik ibn Yūsuf al-Juwaynī al-Shafi'ī ( fa, امام الحرمین ضیاءالدین عبدالملک ابن یوسف جوینی شافعی, 17 February 102820 August 1085; 419–478 AH) was a Persian Sunni Shafi'i jur ...
(d. 1085). At the age of thirty, al-Shahrastānī went to
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
to pursue theological studies and taught for three years at the prestigious Ash`ari school, al-Nizāmiyya. Afterwards, he returned to
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
where he worked as ''Nā’ib'' (Deputy) of the chancellery for
Sanjar
Senjer ( fa, ; full name: ''Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah Abul-Harith Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malik-Shah'') (''b''. 1085 – ''d''. 8 May 1157) was the Seljuq ruler of Khorasan from 1097 until in 1118,Saljūq ruler of Khurāsān. At the end of his life, al-Shahrastānī went back to live in his native town, where he died in the year 1153.
Works
Al-Shahrastani distinguished himself by his desire to describe in the most objective way the universal religious history of humanity.
This is reflected in his '' Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal'' (The Book of Sects and Creeds), a monumental work, which presents the doctrinal points of view of all the religions and philosophies which existed up to his time. The book was one of the earliest systematic studies of religion, and is noted for its non-polemical style and scientific approach. A French translation of the book by Gimaret, Monnot and Jolivet was sponsored by
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international coope ...
(''Livre des religions et des sectes.'' Peeters: 1986, 1993).
Al-Shahrastani's philosophical and theological thoughts manifested in his other major works, which include:
* The ''Nihāyat al-aqdām fī 'ilm al-kalām'' (The End of Steps in the Science of Theology) presents different theological discussions and shows the limits of Muslim theology (''
kalam
''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ( ar, عِلْم الكَلام, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to ''Kalām'' and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Islamic doc ...
'').
* The ''Majlis'' is a discourse, written during the mature period of his life, delivered to a
Twelver
Twelver Shīʿīsm ( ar, ٱثْنَا عَشَرِيَّة; '), also known as Imāmīyyah ( ar, إِمَامِيَّة), is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, comprising about 85 percent of all Shīʿa Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers t ...
Shi`ite audience.
* The ''Musara`at al-Falasifa'' (The Struggle with Philosophers) criticizes
Ibn Sina
Ibn Sina ( fa, ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islami ...
(Avicenna)’s doctrines by emphasizing some peculiar Isma'ili arguments on the division of beings.
* The ''Mafatih al-Asrar wa-masabih al-abrar'' (The Keys of the Mysteries and the Lamps of the Righteous) introduces the
Qur’an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sin ...
and gives a complete commentary on the first two chapters of the Qur’an.
Religious belief
Although self-identified as an
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in th ...
in terms of theology and a
Shafi’i
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
in terms of law, as can be seen in his books, '' Al-Milal wa al-Nihal'', and '' Nihayat al-Iqdam fi 'Ilm al-Kalam, a'' few of his contemporaries accused him of covertly being an Isma'ili, and modern scholars believe that he was actually an Isma’ili practicing
taqiya
In Shi'ism, ''Taqiya'' or ''Taqiyya'' ( ar, تقیة ', literally "prudence, fear")R. STROTHMANN, MOKTAR DJEBLI. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "TAKIYYA", vol. 10, p. 134. Quote: "TAKIYYA "prudence, fear" ..denotes dispensing with th ...
, or dissimulation, based on statements throughout his writings that correspond strongly with Isma’ili mysticism and its central doctrine of the
Imamate
{{expand Arabic, date=April 2021
The term imamate or ''imamah'' ( ar, إمامة, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a state ruled by an ''imam''.
Theology
*Imamate, in Sunni doctrine the caliphate
:* Naqshb ...
.
Al-Shahrastani was amongst those attracted by the "new preaching" (da'wah jadidah) which Hasan-i Sabbāh, the Isma'ili da'i and founder of the medieval Nizari Isma'ili state, initiated. This preaching sought to spread the idea that humanity is always in need of infallible and divine teaching, which can only be provided by a divinely appointed guide. Al-Shahrastani tried to keep this a secret, but it was revealed by his student Al-Sam'ani. His works include a Quranic commentary that is infused with Isma’ili terminology, in which he hinted at his conversion by a "pious servant of God" who taught him how to find the esoteric ( batin) meaning of the Quran. In his Kitab Al-musara'ah (Book of the wrestling match), al-Shahrastani criticizes Avicenna's belief that God is the involuntary necessitating cause of the world, and he also provides support for the Ismaili thesis that God is beyond being and nonbeing.
Christian commentary
In ''Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal'', al-Shahrastani records a portrayal of Christianity very close to the orthodox tenets while continuing the Islamic narrative:
“The Christians. (They are) the community (''
umma
Umma ( sux, ; in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, formerly also called Gishban) was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell J ...
'') of the Christ,
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label= Hebrew/ Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and relig ...
, son of Mary (peace upon him). He it is who was truly sent (as prophet; ''mab'uth'') after Moses (peace upon him), and who was announced in the Torah. To him were (granted) manifest signs and notable evidences, such as the reviving of the dead and the curing of the blind and the leper. His very nature and innate disposition ('' fitra'') are a perfect sign of his truthfulness; that is, his coming without previous seed and his speaking without prior teaching. For all the (other) prophets the arrival of their revelation was at (the age of) forty years, but revelation came to him when he was made to speak in the cradle, and revelation came to him when he conveyed (the divine message) at (the age of) thirty. The duration of his (prophetic) mission (''
da'wa
Dawah ( ar, دعوة, lit=invitation, ) is the act of inviting or calling people to embrace Islam. The plural is ''da‘wāt'' (دَعْوات) or ''da‘awāt'' (دَعَوات).
Etymology
The English term ''Dawah'' derives from the Arabic ...
'') was three years and three months and three days."
Al-Shahrastani also explains the differences between Christians in ''Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal'' regarding the incarnation (''tajassud''):
"They affirmed that God has three hypostases (''aqanim''). They said that the Creator (may he be exalted) is one substance (''jawhar''), meaning by this what is self-subsistent (''al-qa'im bi-n-nafs''), not (what is characterized by) spatial location and physical magnitude; and he is one in substantiality, three in hypostaticity (''uqnumiyya''). By the hypostases they mean the attributes (''sifat''), such as existence, life and knowledge, and the father, the son and the holy spirit ('' ruh al-qudus''). The (hypostasis of) knowledge clothes itself and was incarnated, but not the other hypostases."Watt 1991, p. 69. /ref>
Notes
Bibliography
; Works and studies in English
* al-Shahrastānī, ''The Summa philosophiae'', (''Kitāb Nihāyatu ʼl-Iqdām fī ʽIlmi ʼl –Kalām''), edited with a translation by
Alfred Guillaume
Alfred Guillaume (8 November 1888 – 30 November 1965) was a British Christian Arabist, scholar of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament and Islam.
Career
Guillaume was born in Edmonton, Middlesex, the son of Alfred Guillaume. He took up Arabic ...
, London, Oxford University Press 1934.
* Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim Shahrastani, ''Muslim Sects and Divisions. The Section on Muslim Sects in Kitab al-Milal wa 'l-Nibal'', translated by A. K.Kazi and J. G.Flynn, London, Kegan Paul International 1984 (reprint New York, Routledge 2013).
* al-Shahrastānī, ''Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics'', translation by Wilferd Madelung and Toby Mayer of ''Kitāb Muṣāraʿat al-falāsifa'', London, Tauris, 2001.
* al-Shahrastānī, Keys to the Arcana: Shahrastānī's Esoteric Commentary on the Qurʼan: A Translation of the Commentary on Sūrat al-Fātiḥa ', by Toby Mayer; with the Arabic text reproduced from the edition by M.A. Adharshab, New York, Oxford University Press, 2009.
* Bruce B. Lawrence, ''Shahrastani on the Indian Religions'', Preface by Franz Rosenthal, The Hague, Mouton, 1976 (with the translation of Shahrastânï's ''Kitäb al-milal wan-nihal'' Part II, Book III, Section Β 'Ära al-hind'l, The Views of the Indians, pp. 33–62).
* Steigerwald, Diana, "The Divine Word (Kalima) in Shahrastani's Majlis." In ''Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses'', vol. 25.3, 1996, pp. 335–52.
* Steigerwald, Diana, "Al-Shahrastānī’s Contribution to Medieval Islamic Thought." In Todd Lawson (ed.), ''Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. Essays in Honor of Hermann Landolt''. London: I.B. Tauris, 2005, pp. 262–273.
; Works and studies in French
* Al-Shahrastānī, ''Livre des religions et des sectes'', traduction par Daniel Gimaret, Guy Monnot, Jean Jolivet, Louvain, Peeters et UNESCO, 1986–1993 (two volumes)
* Al-Shahrastānī, ''Majlis: Discours sur l'ordre et la création''. (''Majlis-i maktub-i Shahrastāni-i munʿaqid dar Khwārazm''. Edited by Muḥammad Riżā R. Jalāli Naʾini) traduction française de Diane Steigerwald), Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1999.
* Jolivet, Jean, "Al-Shahrastânî critique d'Avicenne dans la lutte contre les philosophes (quelques aspects)," ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'', 2000, vol. 10, pp. 275–292.
* Monnot, Guy, "Islam: exégèse coranique." ''Annuaire de l'École Pratique des Hautes Études. Section des sciences religieuses'', sur Shahrastani:
** "L'Introduction de Shahrastâni à son commentaire coranique inédit", Tome 92, 1983–1984. 1983. pp. 305–316;
** "La Sourate d'ouverture dans le commentaire coranique inédit de Shahrastânï", Tome 93, 1984–1985. 1984. pp. 293–303;
** "Le commentaire coranique inédit de Shahrastânî (suite)", Tome 94, 1985–1986. 1985. pp. 347–351;
** "La Sourate de la Vache dans le commentaire coranique inédit de Shahrastânî", Tome 95, 1986–1987. 1986. pp. 253–259;
** "« Les clefs des mystères » de Shahrastânî", Tome 96, 1987–1988. 1987. pp. 237–243;
** "« Les clefs des mystères > de Sharastânî (suite)", Tome 97, 1988–1989. 1988. pp. 249–255.
* Monnot, Guy, 1996 «Shahrastani», su: ''Encyclopédie de l'islam'', 1996, vol. 9, pp. 220–22.
* Monnot, Guy, 1999 Book review of ''La pensée philosophique et théologique de Shahrastani (m. 548/1153) '' by Diane Steigerwald in: ''Bulletin critique des annales islamologiques'', vol. 15, pp. 79–81.
* Monnot, Guy, 2001 Book review of ''Majlis-i maktub-i Shahrastani-i mun'aqid dar Khwarazm''. Ed. Muhammad Rida R. Jalali Na'ini and translated into French by Diane Steigerwald in ''Majlis: Discours sur l'ordre et la création''. Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval in ''Bulletin critique des annales islamologiques'', vol. 17.
* Steigerwald, Diana, 1995 "L'Ordre (Amr) et la création (khalq) chez Shahrastani." ''Folia Orientalia'', vol. 31, pp. 163–75.
* Steigerwald, Diana, 1997 ''La pensée philosophique et théologique de Shahrastani (m. 548/1153)''. Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval.
* Steigerwald, Diana, 1998 "La dissimulation (''taqiyya'') de la foi dans le shi'isme ismaélien." ''Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses'', vol. 27.1, pp. 39–59.
; Works and studies in German
* Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, ''Religionspartheien und Philosophen-Schulen'', traduzione di ''Kitāb al-Milal wa al-Niḥal'' a cura di Theodor Haarbrücker, Halle, Schwetschke, 1850–1851 (due volumi).
* Madelung, Wilferd, "Ash-Shahrastanis Streitschrift gegen Avicenna und ihre Widerlegung durch Nasir ad-din at-Tusi." Akten des VII. Kongresses für Arabistik und Islamwissenschaft, Abhandlungen der Akademie des Wissenschaften in Göttingen, 1976, vol. 98, pp. 250–9.
; Works in Arabic
* Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1923 ''Kitāb al-Milal wa al-Niḥal''. Ed. William Cureton in ''Books of Religions and Philosophical Sects''. 2 vols.
Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as ...
: Otto Harrassowitz (reprint of the edition of London 1846).
* Danish-Pazhuh, Muhammad Taqi, "Dāʿi al-duʿāt Taj al-din-i Shahrastana." ''Nama-yi astan-i quds'', 1968. vol. 7, pp. 77–80.
* Danish-Pazhuh, Muhammad Taqi, "Dāʿi al-duʿāt Taj al-din-i Shahrastana." ''Nama-yi astan-i quds'', 1969, vol. 8, pp. 61–71.
* Naʿini, Jalāli, 1964 ''Sharh-i Ḥāl wa Athar-i Ḥujjat al-Ḥaqq Abu al-Fatḥ Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Karim b. Aḥmad Shahrastāni''. Tehran.
* al-Nuʿmān, Abū Ḥanīfa, 1956 ''Al-Risāla al-Mudhhiba''. In: ''Khams Rasāʾil Ismāʿīliyya''. Ed. ʿĀrif Tāmir, Beirut.
* Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1366-1375/1947-1955 ''Kitāb al-Milal wa al-Niḥal''. Ed. Muḥammad Fatḥ Allāh Badrān, 2 vols. Cairo.
* Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1396/1976 ''Muṣāraʿat al-falāsifa''. Ed. Suhayr M. Mukhtār. Cairo.
* Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1989 ''Mafātīḥ al-asrār wa-masābīḥ al-abrār''. Tehran.
List of Persian scientists and scholars
The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists, engineers, and scholars who lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern age. For the modern era, see List of contemporary Iranian scientists, scholars, and engineers ...
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''IEP'') is a scholarly online encyclopedia, dealing with philosophy, philosophical topics, and philosophers. The IEP combines open access publication with peer reviewed publication of original p ...