Monasticism (from
Ancient Greek , , from , , 'alone'), or monkhood, is a
religious way of life in which one renounces
worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role in many
Christian churches, especially in the
Catholic and
Orthodox traditions as well as in other faiths such as
Buddhism,
Hinduism and
Jainism. In other religions monasticism is criticized and not practiced, as in
Islam and
Zoroastrianism, or plays a marginal role, as in modern
Judaism. Women pursuing a monastic life are generally called ''
nuns'', ''religious'' or ''sisters'' or rarely,
Canonesses, while monastic men are called ''
monks'', ''friars'' or ''brothers''.
Many monastics live in
abbeys,
convents,
monasteries or priories to separate themselves from the
secular world, unless they are in
mendicant or
missionary orders. Titles for monastics differ between the Christian denominations. In
Roman Catholicism and
Anglicanism, monks and nuns are addressed as Brother (or Father, if ordained to the priesthood) or Mother/Sister, while in
Eastern Orthodoxy, they are addressed as Father or Mother.
Buddhism

The
Sangha or community of ordained
Buddhist bhikkhus ("beggar" or "one who lives by
alms".) and original
bhikkhunis (nuns) was founded by
Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. This communal monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering
ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under. It was initially fairly
eremitic or reclusive in nature. Bhikkhus and bhikkunis were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community.
Lay followers also provided the daily food that bhikkhus required, and provided shelter for bhikkhus when they needed it.

After the
Parinibbana (Final Passing) of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily
cenobitic or communal movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy
vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis — as encoded in the
Patimokkha — relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of bhikkhus or bhikkhunis. The number of rules observed varies with the order;
Theravada bhikkhus follow around 227 rules, the
Vinaya. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns).
The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male
bhikkhu assembly and the female
bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, it grew to include females after the Buddha's stepmother,
Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner.
Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhus. In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character.
A bhikkhu (the term in the
Pali language) or bhikshu (in
Sanskrit), first ordains as a ''Samanera'' (novice). Novices often ordain at a young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the
Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Bhikkhunis follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for longer periods of time- typically five years.
The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. However,
celibacy is a fundamental part of this form of monastic discipline.
Christianity

Monasticism in Christianity, which provides the origins of the words "
monk" and "
monastery", comprises several diverse forms of religious living. It began to develop early in the history of the Church, but is not mentioned in the scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the
Rule of St Basil, the
Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective apostolic Christian churches that have forms of
monastic living.
The Christian monk embraces the monastic life as a vocation from God. His objective is to imitate the life of
Christ as far as possible in preparation for attaining
eternal life after death.

In 4th century
Egypt, Christians felt called to a more reclusive or
eremitic form of living (in the spirit of the "Desert Theology" for the purpose of spiritual renewal and return to God). Saint
Anthony the Great is cited by
Athanasius as one of the early "Hermit monks". Especially in the
Middle East, eremitic monasticism continued to be common until the decline of
Syriac Christianity in the late Middle Ages.
Around 318 Saint
Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian
cenobitic or communal
monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable
monasteries in the East include:
*
Monastery of Saint Anthony, one of the oldest Christian monasteries in the world.
*
Mar Awgin founded a monastery on
Mt. Izla above
Nisibis in
Mesopotamia (c. 350), and from this monastery the cenobitic tradition spread in Mesopotamia, Persia, Armenia, Georgia and even India and China.
* St.
Sabbas the Sanctified organized the monks of the Judean Desert in a monastery close to
Bethlehem (483), now known as
Mar Saba, which is considered the mother of all monasteries of the
Eastern Orthodox churches.
*
Saint Catherine's Monastery was founded between 527 and 565 in the
Sinai Peninsula,
Egypt by order of Emperor
Justinian I.
In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were written down, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first. The precise dating of the
Rule of the Master is problematic. It has been argued that it antedates the Rule of Saint Benedict created by
Benedict of Nursia for his monastery in
Monte Cassino, Italy (c. 529), and the other
Benedictine monasteries he had founded as part of the
Order of St Benedict. It would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and is still in use today. The
Augustinian Rule, due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, chiefly the
Canons Regular. Around the 12th century, the
Franciscan,
Carmelite,
Dominican,
Servite Order (see
Servants of Mary) and
Augustinian mendicant orders chose to live in city
convents among the people instead of being secluded in monasteries.
St. Augustine's Monastery, founded in 1277 in
Erfurt, Germany is regarded by many historians and theologians as the "cradle of the
Reformation", as it is where
Martin Luther lived as a monk from 1505 to 1511.
[UNESCO World Heritage. Augustinian Monastery, Erfurt extension application]
(Accessed: 29 May 2017)
Today new expressions of
Christian monasticism, many of which are
ecumenical, are developing in various places such as the
Bose Monastic Community in
Italy, the
Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem throughout
Europe, the
New Skete, the Anglo-Celtic Society of Nativitists, the
Taizé Community in
France, and the mainly Evangelical
Protestant New Monasticism.
Hinduism

In their quest to attain the
spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (
Sannyasa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of
simplicity,
celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. A Hindu monk is called a s''anyāsī, sādhu'', or ''swāmi''. A nun is called a ''sanyāsini'', ''sādhvi'', or ''swāmini''. Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs. It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide
sadhus with food or other necessaries.
Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain. A
sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally,
Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while
Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut.
A ''sadhu's'' vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:
* owning personal property apart from a bowl, a cup, two sets of clothing and medical aids such as eyeglasses;
* having any contact with, looking at, thinking of or even being in the presence of women;
* eating for pleasure;
* possessing or even touching money or valuables in any way, shape or form;
* maintaining personal relationships.
Islam
Islam forbids the practice of monasticism. In
Sunni Islam, one example is
Uthman bin Maz'oon; one of the
companions of
Muhammad. He was married to
Khawlah bint Hakim, both being two of the earliest converts to Islam. There is a Sunni narration that, out of religious devotion, Uthman bin Maz'oon decided to dedicate himself to
night prayers and take a vow of
chastity from his wife. His wife got upset and spoke to Muhammad about this. Muhammad reminded Uthman that he himself, as the Prophet, also had a family life, and that Uthman had a responsibility to his family and should not adopt monasticism as a form of religious practice.
Muhammad told his companions to ease their burden and avoid excess. According to some Sunni
hadiths, in a message to some companions who wanted to put an end to their sexual life, pray all night long or fast continuously, Muhammad said: “Do not do that! Fast on some days and eat on others. Sleep part of the night, and stand in prayer another part. For your body has rights upon you, your eyes have a right upon you, your wife has a right upon you, your guest has a right upon you.” Muhammad once exclaimed, repeating it three times: “Woe to those who exaggerate
ho are too strict” And, on another occasion, Muhammad said: “Moderation, moderation! For only with moderation will you succeed.”
Monasticism is also mentioned in the following verse of Qur'an:
Then We caused Our messengers to follow in their footsteps; and We caused Jesus, son of Mary, to follow, and gave him the Gospel, and placed compassion and mercy in the hearts of those who followed him. But monasticism they invented - We ordained it not for them - only seeking Allah's pleasure, and they observed it not with right observance. So We give those of them who believe their reward, but many of them are evil-livers.
:—Qur'an Verse 27, Surah Al-Hadid (chapter 57)
Jainism
In
Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither a permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of
Chaturmas. The quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of a phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them.
Judaism
Judaism does not encourage the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty. To the contrary—all of the
Torah's
Commandments are a means of sanctifying the physical world. As further disseminated through the teachings of the
Yisrael Ba'al Shem Tov, the pursuit of permitted physical pleasures is encouraged as a means to "serve God with joy" (Deut. 28:47).
However, until the
Destruction of the Second Temple, about two thousand years ago, taking
Nazirite vows was a common feature of the religion. Nazirite
Jews (in Hebrew: נזיר) abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead. However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property; moreover, in most cases a Nazirite vow was for a specified time period and not permanent. In Modern Hebrew, the term "Nazir" is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics.
Unique among Jewish communities is the monasticism of the
Beta Israel of Ethiopia, a practice believed to date to the 15th century.
A form of asceticism was practiced by some individuals in pre–
World War II European Jewish communities. Its principal expression was ''prishut'', the practice of a married
Talmud student going into self-imposed exile from his home and family to study in the
kollel of a different city or town. This practice was associated with, but not exclusive to, the
Perushim.
The
Essenes (in
Modern but not in
Ancient Hebrew: , ''Isiyim'';
Greek: Εσσηνοι, Εσσαιοι, or Οσσαιοι; ''Essēnoi'', ''Essaioi'', or ''Ossaioi'') were a Jewish
sect that flourished from the 2nd century BC to AD 100 which some scholars claim seceded from the
Zadokite priests. Being much fewer in number than the
Pharisees and the
Sadducees (the other two major sects at the time), the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to
asceticism,
voluntary poverty, daily immersion (in mikvah), and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including (for some groups)
marriage. Many separate but related religious groups of that era shared similar
mystic,
eschatological,
messianic, and
ascetic beliefs. These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as the "Essenes".
Josephus records that Essenes existed in large numbers, and thousands lived throughout
Roman Judaea.
The
Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the
Dead Sea Scrolls, which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library—although there is no proof that the Essenes wrote them. These documents include multiple preserved copies of the
Hebrew Bible which were untouched from as early as 300 years before Christ until their discovery in 1946. Some scholars, however, dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Rachel Elior, a prominent
Israeli scholar, even questions the existence of the Essenes.
Taoism
Throughout the centuries
Taoism developed its own extensive monastic traditions and practices. Particularly well known is the
White Cloud Monastery in Beijing, which houses a rare complete copy of the ''
Daozang'', a major Taoist Scripture.
Other religions or movements

*
Ananda Marga has both monks and nuns (i.e.
celibate male and female
acharyas or
missionaries) as well as a smaller group of family acharyas. The monks and nuns are engaged in all kinds of direct services to society, so they have no scope for permanent retreat. They do have to follow strict celibacy, poverty and many other rules of conduct during as well as after they have completed their training.
*
Bön is believed to have a rich monastic history. Bön monasteries exist today, and the monks there practice Bön-Buddhism.
*
Manichaeism had two types of followers, the auditors, and the elect. The elect lived apart from the auditors to concentrate on reducing the material influences of the world. They did this through strict celibacy, poverty, teaching, and preaching. Therefore, the elect were probably at least partially monastic.
*
Scientology maintains a "fraternal order" called the Sea Organization or just
Sea Org. They work only for the
Church of Scientology and have signed billion year contracts. Sea Org members live communally with lodging, food, clothing, and medical care provided by the Church.
*
Sikhism and the
Baháʼí Faith both specifically forbid the practice of monasticism. Hence there are no Sikh or Baháʼí monk conclaves or brotherhoods.
*
Quanzhen School of
Taoism has
monks and
nuns
*
Way of Former Heaven sect of
Zhaijiao.
* The
Transcendental Meditation movement sponsors two monastic groups: the Thousand-Headed Purusha for men and the Mother Divine for women.
The US residences for the groups were in
Heavenly Mountain, North Carolina.
[ There is also a Purusha program at an ashram in Uttarkashi, India. The Global Mother Divine Organization describes itself as the women's wing of the Global Country of World Peace.]
* Zoroastrianism holds that active participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep chaotic influences at bay. This ''active'' participation is a central element in Zoroaster's concept of free will, and Zoroastrianism rejects all forms of asceticism and monasticism.
See also
* Asceticism
* Double monastery
* Guru
* Hermit
* Mendicant
* Religious order
* Sādhanā
References
Further reading
* Fracchia, Charles. ''Living Together Alone: The New American Monasticism''. Harper & Row, 1979. .
* Gruber, Mark. 2003. ''Sacrifice In the Desert: A Study of an Egyptian Minority Through the Lens of Coptic Monasticism''. Lanham: University Press of America.
* Johnston, William M. (ed.). 2000. ''Encyclopedia of Monasticism''. 2 vols., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
* Knowles, David. Christian Monasticism. London: World University Library, 1969
* Lawrence, C. H. 2001. ''Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages'' (3rd Edition). New York: Longmans.
* Zarnecki, George. 1985. "The Monastic World: The Contributions of the Orders". Pp. 36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.). 1985. ''The Flowering of the Middle Ages.'' London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
External links
The Hermits by Charles Kingsley (Gutenberg)
* ttp://www.historyfish.net/monastics/monasticlife.html Abbot Gasquet's English Monastic Life. Full Text + Illustrations.
Public Domain Photochrom photographs, Abbeys, Cathedrals, Holy Sites and the Holy Land.
History of Monasticism
Immaculate Heart of Mary's Hermitage
"Woman" – The correct perspective for the monastic
nbsp;– An eastern point of view
American Benedictines
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Category:Asceticism
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