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Metzora, Metzorah, M'tzora, Mezora, Metsora, M'tsora, Metsoro, Meṣora, or Maṣoro ( —
Metzora, Metzorah, M'tzora, Mezora, Metsora, M'tsora, Metsoro, Meṣora, or Maṣoro ( — Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
for "one being diseased," the ninth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 28th weekly Torah portion
It is a custom among religious Jewish communities for a weekly Torah portion to be read during Jewish prayer services on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday. The full name, ''Parashat HaShavua'' ( he, פָּרָשַׁת הַשָּׁבוּעַ), is p ...
(, ''parashah'') in the annual Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
cycle of Torah reading
Torah reading (; ') is a Jewish religious tradition that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the scroll (or scrolls) from the Torah ark, chanting th ...
and the fifth in the Book of Leviticus
The book of Leviticus (, from grc, Λευιτικόν, ; he, וַיִּקְרָא, , "And He called") is the third book of the Torah (the Pentateuch) and of the Old Testament, also known as the Third Book of Moses. Scholars generally agree ...
. The parashah deals with ritual impurity. It addresses cleansing from skin disease (, '' tzara'at''), houses with an eruptive plague, male genital discharges, and menstruation
Menstruation (also known as a period, among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of ...
. The parashah constitutes The parashah is made up of 4,697 Hebrew letters, 1,274 Hebrew words, 90 verses, and 159 lines in a Torah Scroll (, ''Sefer Torah
A ( he, סֵפֶר תּוֹרָה; "Book of Torah"; plural: ) or Torah scroll is a handwritten copy of the Torah, meaning the five books of Moses (the first books of the Hebrew Bible). The Torah scroll is mainly used in the ritual of To ...
'').
Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
s generally read it in April or, rarely, in early May. The lunisolar
A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures, combining lunar calendars and solar calendars. The date of Lunisolar calendars therefore indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar year, that is the position of the Sun in the Ea ...
Hebrew calendar
The Hebrew calendar ( he, הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי, translit=HaLuah HaIvri), also called the Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance, and as an official calendar of the state of Israel ...
contains up to 55 week
A week is a unit of time equal to seven days. It is the standard time period used for short cycles of days in most parts of the world. The days are often used to indicate common work days and rest days, as well as days of worship. Weeks are of ...
s, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2022, 2024, and 2027), parashah Metzora is read separately. In common years (for example, 2020, 2021, 2023, 2025, 2026, 2028), parashah Metzora is combined with the previous parashah, Tazria
Tazria, Thazria, Thazri'a, Sazria, or Ki Tazria (—Hebrew for "childbirth", the 13th word, and the first distinctive word, in the ''parashah'', where the root word means "seed") is the 27th weekly Torah portion (, ''parashah'') in the annual Jew ...
, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , '' aliyot''.
First reading — Leviticus 14:1–12
In the first reading (, ''aliyah''),God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
told Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu ( Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pr ...
the ritual
A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
for cleansing one with a skin disease. If the priest
A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in partic ...
saw that the person had healed, the priest would order two live clean birds, cedar
Cedar may refer to:
Trees and plants
*''Cedrus'', common English name cedar, an Old-World genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae
*Cedar (plant), a list of trees and plants known as cedar
Places United States
* Cedar, Arizona
* ...
wood, crimson stuff, and hyssop
''Hyssopus officinalis'' or hyssop is a shrub in the Lamiaceae or mint family native to Southern Europe, the Middle East, and the region surrounding the Caspian Sea. Due to its purported properties as an antiseptic, cough reliever, and expect ...
. The priest would order one of the birds slaughtered over fresh water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as ...
and would then dip the live bird, the cedar wood, the crimson stuff, and the hyssop in the blood
Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood in the cir ...
of the slaughtered bird. The priest would then sprinkle the blood seven times on the one who was to be cleansed and then set the live bird free. The one to be cleansed would then wash his clothes, shave off his hair
Hair is a protein filament that grows from follicles found in the dermis. Hair is one of the defining characteristics of mammals.
The human body, apart from areas of glabrous skin, is covered in follicles which produce thick terminal and fi ...
, bathe in water, and then be clean. On the eighth day after that, the one being cleansed was to present two male lambs, one ewe lamb, choice flour
Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many cul ...
, and oil
An oil is any nonpolar chemical substance that is composed primarily of hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic (does not mix with water) & lipophilic (mixes with other oils). Oils are usually flammable and surface active. Most oils are unsaturated ...
for the priest to offer.
Second reading — Leviticus 14:13–20
In the second reading (, ''aliyah''), the priest was to kill the lamb and put some of its blood and the oil on the ridge of the rightear
An ear is the organ that enables hearing and, in mammals, body balance using the vestibular system. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of ...
, the right thumb
The thumb is the first digit of the hand, next to the index finger. When a person is standing in the medical anatomical position (where the palm is facing to the front), the thumb is the outermost digit. The Medical Latin English noun for thumb ...
, and the right big toe of the one being cleansed, and then put more of the oil on his head
A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple animals ...
.
Third reading — Leviticus 14:21–32
In the third reading (, ''aliyah''), if the one being cleansed was poor, he could bring two turtle doves orpigeons
Columbidae () is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily ...
in place of two of the lambs.
Fourth reading — Leviticus 14:33–53
In the fourth reading (, ''aliyah''), God then told Moses andAaron
According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ''′aharon'', ar, هارون, Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ἀαρών; often called Aaron the priest ()., group="note" ( or ; ''’Ahărōn'') was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of ...
the ritual for cleansing a house
A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air cond ...
with an eruptive plague. The owner was to tell the priest, who was to order the house cleared and then examine it. If the plague in the walls was greenish or reddish streaks deep into the wall, the priest was to close the house for seven days. If, after seven days, the plague had spread, the priest was to order the stones with the plague to be pulled out and cast outside the city. The house was then to be scraped, the stones replaced, and the house replastered. If the plague again broke out, the house was to be torn down. If the plague did not break out again, the priest was to pronounce the house clean. To purge the house, the priest was to take two birds, cedar wood, crimson stuff, and hyssop, slaughter one bird over fresh water, sprinkle on the house seven times with the bird's blood, and then let the live bird go free.
Fifth reading — Leviticus 14:54–15:15
In the fifth reading (, ''aliyah''), God then told Moses and Aaron the ritual for cleansing a person who had a genital discharge. When a man had a discharge from his genitals, he was unclean, and any bedding on which he lay and every object on which he sat was to be unclean. Anyone who touched his body, touched his bedding, touched an object on which he sat, was touched by his spit, or was touched by him before he rinsed his hands was to wash his clothes, bathe in water, and remain unclean until evening. An earthen vessel that he touched was to be broken, and any wooden implement was to be rinsed with water. Seven days after the discharge ended, he was to wash his clothes, bathe his body in fresh water, and be clean. On the eighth day, he was to give two turtle doves or two pigeons to the priest, who was to offer them to make expiation.Sixth reading — Leviticus 15:16–28
In the sixth reading (, ''aliyah''), when a man had an emission ofsemen
Semen, also known as seminal fluid, is an organic bodily fluid created to contain spermatozoa. It is secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic animals and can fertilize the female ovum. Sem ...
, he was to bathe and remain unclean until evening. All material on which semen fell was to be washed in water and remain unclean until evening. And if a man had carnal relations with a woman, they were both to bathe and remain unclean until evening. When a woman had a menstrual discharge, she was to remain impure seven days, and whoever touched her was to be unclean until evening. Anything that she lay on or sat on was unclean. Anyone who touched her bedding or any object on which she has sat was to wash his clothes, bathe in water, and remain unclean until evening. And if a man lay with her, her impurity was communicated to him and he was to be unclean seven days, and any bedding on which he lay became unclean. When a woman had an irregular discharge of blood, she was to be unclean as long as her discharge lasted. Seven days after the discharge ended, she was to be clean.
Seventh reading — Leviticus 15:29–33
In the seventh reading (, ''aliyah''), on the eighth day, the woman was to give two turtle doves or two pigeons to the priest, who was to offer them to make expiation. God told Moses and Aaron to put the Israelites on guard against uncleanness, lest they die by defiling God'sTabernacle
According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle ( he, מִשְׁכַּן, mīškān, residence, dwelling place), also known as the Tent of the Congregation ( he, link=no, אֹהֶל מוֹעֵד, ’ōhel mō‘ēḏ, also Tent of Meeting, etc.), ...
.
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:Leviticus chapter 14
associates skin disease with uncleanness, and associates various sexuality-related events with uncleanness. In theHebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' 11
and and associate it with death. And perhaps similarly, associates it with childbirth and associates it with skin disease. associates it with various sexuality-related events. And
and and associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods. The Hebrew Bible reports skin disease (, ''tzara'at'') and a person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora'') at several places, often (and sometimes incorrectly) translated as "leprosy" and "a leper." In to help Moses to convince others that God had sent him, God instructed Moses to put his hand into his bosom, and when he took it out, his hand was "leprous (, ''m'tzora'at''), as white as snow." In the Torah sets out regulations for skin diseases (, ''tzara'at'') and a person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora''). In after
The Torah mentions the combination of ear, thumb, and toe in three places. In God instructed Moses how to initiate the priests, telling him to kill a ram, take some of its blood, and put it on the tip of the right ear of Aaron and his sons, on the thumb of their right hand, and on the great toe of their right foot, and dash the remaining blood against the altar round about. And then reports that Moses followed God's instructions to initiate Aaron and his sons. Then,
17
an
set forth a similar procedure for the cleansing of a person with skin disease (, ''tzara'at''). In God instructed the priest on the day of the person's cleansing to take some of the blood of a guilt-offering and put it upon the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed. And then in God instructed the priest to put oil on the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed, on top of the blood of the guilt-offering. And finally, in an
God instructed the priest to repeat the procedure on the eighth day to complete the person's cleansing.
18
and employed it in the Exodus from Egypt in Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Joseph ben Zimra that anyone who bears evil tales (, ''
Similarly, a 
In the priest's examination of skin disease mandated by
9
and the Mishnah taught that a priest could examine anyone else's symptoms, but not his own. And
Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel interpreted the words "completely blue (, ''techelet'')" in to teach that blue dye used to test the dye is unfit for further use to dye the blue, ''
A Midrash interpreted the words, "And he spoke of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even to the hyssop that springs out of the wall," in to teach that
Mishnah Yoma 4:2
indicates was marked with a red thread), and the third in connection with the person with skin disease (, ''metzora'') in Rav Dimi reported that one weighed ten '' zuz'', another weighed two ''selas'', and the third weighed a
17
an
showed that every finger has its own unique purpose. and provided that people of lesser means could bring less-expensive offerings. The Mishnah taught that one who sacrificed much and one who sacrificed little attained equal merit, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. Rabbi Zera taught that provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "Sweet is the sleep of a serving man, whether he eat little or much." Rav
In God announced that God would "put the plague of leprosy in a house of the land of your possession." 
A Baraita (which the Gemara later said may have reflected the view of Rabbi Meir, or may have reflected the view of the Rabbis) taught that a
in, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Yoma'', commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 9, page 50.
Alternatively, the Gemara suggested that both teachings were in accord with the Rabbis. In the first case, the synagogue referred to has a dwelling, and then even the Rabbis would say that it would be subject to house plagues. In the other case, the synagogue referred to has no dwelling, and so would not be subject to house plagues.
Alternatively, the Gemara tentatively suggested that in both cases, the synagogue has no dwelling, but the first teaching refers to urban synagogues, while the second refers to rural synagogues. But the Gemara asked whether urban synagogues really are not subject to uncleanness from house plagues. For a Baraita taught that the words, "in the house of the land of your possession" in teach that a house of the land of the Israelites' possession could become defiled through house plagues, but 
The Mishnah interpreted the words, "there seems to me to be as it were a plague in the house" in to teach that even a learned sage who knows that he has definitely seen a sign of plague in a house may not speak with certainty. Rather, even the sage must say, "there ''seems'' to me to be as it were a plague in the house."
The Mishnah interpreted the instruction to empty the house in Rabbi Judah taught that they removed even bundles of wood and even bundles of reeds. Rabbi Simeon remarked that this (removal of bundles that are not susceptible to uncleanness) was idle business. But Rabbi Meir responded by asking which of the homeowner's goods could become unclean. Articles of wood, cloth, or metal surely could be immersed in a ritual bath and become clean. The only thing that the Torah spared was the homeowner's earthenware, even his and his ewer (which, if the house proved unclean, indicates would have to be broken). If the Torah thus spared a person's humble possessions, how much more so would the Torah spare a person's cherished possessions. If the Torah shows so much consideration for material possessions, how much more so would the Torah show for the lives of a person's children. If the Torah shows so much consideration for the possessions of a wicked person (if we take the plague as a punishment for the sin of slander), how much more so would the Torah show for the possessions of a righteous person.
Reading to say, "And he shall look on the plague, and behold the plague," the Sifra interpreted the double allusion to teach that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in at least the size of ''two'' split beans. And because addresses the house's "walls" in the plural, the Sifra taught that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared on at least four walls. Consequently, the Mishnah taught that a round house or a triangular house could not contract uncleanness from a house plague.
Because addresses the house's "stones" in the plural, 
A Midrash read the discussion of the house stricken with plague in as a prophecy. The Midrash read the words, "and I put the plague of leprosy in a house of the land of your possession," in to allude to the Temple, about which in God says, "I will defile My sanctuary, the pride of your power, the desire of your eyes, and the longing of your soul." The Midrash read the words, "then He whose house it is shall come," in to allude to God, about Whom says, "Because of My house that lies waste." The Midrash read the words, "and He shall tell the priest," in to allude to
The Mishnah taught that they inquired along seven lines before they determined that a genital discharge rendered a man unclean. A discharge caused by one of these reasons did not render the man impure or subject him to bringing an offering. They asked: (1) about his food, (2) about his drink, (3) what he had carried, (4) whether he had jumped, (5) whether he had been ill, (6) what he had seen, and (7) whether he had obscene thoughts. It did not matter whether he had had thoughts before or after seeing a woman. Rabbi Judah taught that the discharge would not render him unclean if he had watched animals having intercourse or even if he merely saw a woman's dyed garments. Rabbi Akiva taught that the discharge would not render him unclean even if he had eaten any kind of food, good or bad, or had drunk any kind of liquid. The Sages exclaimed to Rabbi Akiva that according to his view, no more men would ever be rendered unclean by genital discharge. Rabbi Akiva replied that one does not have an obligation to ensure that there exist men unclean because of a genital discharges.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Hisma taught that even the apparently arcane laws of bird offerings in and menstrual cycles in and are essential laws.
Tractate 
Tractate
54
an
specific rituals for what is sometimes called leprosy. Speiser argued that in context, the word cannot be mistaken for the title of the Pentateuch as a whole. Professor
Feeling qualms of guilt, they went to go tell the king of Samaria, and called to the porters of the city telling them what they had seen, and the porters told the king's household within. The king arose in the night, and told his servants that he suspected that the Arameans had hidden in the field, thinking that when the Samaritans came out, they would be able to get into the city. One of his servants suggested that some men take five of the horses that remained and go see, and they took two chariots with horses to go and see. They went after the Arameans as far as the Jordan River, and all the way was littered with garments and vessels that the Arameans had cast away in their haste, and the messengers returned and told the king. So the people went out and looted Arameans' camp, so that the market price of; a measure (seah) of fine flour (about six dry qt., six lb. or three kg.) and two seahs of barley meal; each dropped to one shekel in price, as God's prophet had said it would. And the king appointed the captain on whom he leaned to take charge of the gate, and the people trampled him and killed him before he could taste of the flour, just as the man of God Elisha had said.
19.
*for Ashkenazi Jews:
*for Sephardi Jews:
20–22
(riddance ritual). * (cedar wood, hyssop, and red stuff); (hyssop). * (priests' duty to assess); (priests' duties regarding skin diseases). * (purification from skin disease with living water); (people with skin disease). * (transporting away wickedness by wing).
* ("Purge me with hyssop"); (to teach); (plague on dwelling); (learning from the law).
''Allegorical Interpretation''
3:4:15
6:16
28:131–35.
3:11:3–4.
Circa 93–94. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by
Pesachim 8:5Shekalim 5:3Yoma 4:2Moed Katan 3:1–2Nazir 7:3Avot 3:18Horayot 1:3Zevachim 4:3Menachot 5:6–79:313:11Bekhorot 7:2Arakhin 2:1Temurah 7:4
Kinnim 1:1–3:6
Negaim 1:1–14:13Parah 1:46:5
Mikvaot 1:1–10:8; Mikvaot 1:1–10:8
Niddah 1:1–10:8Zavim 1:1–5:12.
Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by
*Babylonian
Shabbat 2b11b59a62b64a–b71b83a84a–b86b109a132aEruvin 4a–b, 14b, 51a, 82bPesachim 3a24a59a–b65b67b–68a85b90b92a109aYoma 5a6a11b–12a24a30b–31a41b61a–b62b63aSukkah 3a–b5b–6aBeitzah 32aTaanit 26bMegillah 8a–b20a–21a26aMoed Katan 5a7a–b13b14b15a–16a17b25b27bChagigah 9b11a23bNedarim 35b–36a56a–bSotah 5b8a15b–16b29bKiddushin 15a25a33b56b–57b68a70bBava Kamma 17b24a25a–b66b82a–bSanhedrin 45b48b71a87b–88a92aMakkot 13b21aShevuot 6a–b8a11a14b17b18a–bZevachim 6b8a17b24b32b40a43a44a–b47b49a54b76b90b91b105a112bMenachot 3a5a8a9a–10a15b18b24a27a–b35b42b48b61a64b73a76b86b88a89a91a101b106bChullin 10b24b27a35a49b51b62a71b72b82a85a106a123b128b133a140a141a142aBekhorot 32a38a45bArakhin 3a8a15b–17bKeritot 8a–b9b10b25a28aMeilah 11a, 18a, 19a–bNiddah 2a–73a.
Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Leviticus 14–15.
*
*
*
*Yitzchak Magriso. ''
* Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). ''Commentary on the Torah.''
"Jewish Reaction to Epidemics (AIDS)."
In ''Contemporary American Reform Responsa'', pages 136–38. New York:
"The Rationale for Biblical Impurity."
''Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society''. Volume 22 (1993): pages 107–11. *Victor Avigdor Hurowitz
"Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation."
''
* W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 277–84. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. .
*Binyomin Forst. ''The Laws of Niddah: A Comprehensive Exposition of Their Underlying Concepts and Applications'', volume 1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. .
*
“Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.”
''
*
"Holy Water: A New Book Reveals the Secrets of the Mikveh."
In '' Tablet Magazine''. (August 31, 2009). *Mark Leuchter
“The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.”
''
*
“Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 37 (number 3) (March 2013): pages 265–94.
*Peretz Rivkin, Yehuda Weingarten, Zusha Greisman. ''Parshath Nega'im with W'Tihar HaKohen Commentary (Tzaraath)'', volume 1, Hebrew Edition. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014. .
*
“In Rural Nepal, Menstruation Taboo Claims Another Victim.”
''
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translationHear the parashah chanted
Academy for Jewish Religion, CaliforniaAcademy for Jewish Religion, New YorkAkhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning NetworkAleph Beta AcademyAmerican Jewish University — Ziegler School of Rabbinic StudiesAscent of SafedBar-Ilan UniversityChabad.orgeparsha.comG-dcastJewish Theological SeminaryMechon HadarMyJewishLearning.comOhr SameachON Scripture — The TorahOzTorah — Torah from AustraliaOz Ve Shalom — Netivot ShalomPardes from JerusalemProfessor James L. KugelProfessor Michael CarasikRabbi Dov LinzerRabbi Jonathan SacksRabbiShimon.comRabbi Shmuel HerzfeldReconstructionist JudaismShiur.com
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and and associate it with death. And perhaps similarly, associates it with childbirth and associates it with skin disease. associates it with various sexuality-related events. And
and and associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods. The Hebrew Bible reports skin disease (, ''tzara'at'') and a person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora'') at several places, often (and sometimes incorrectly) translated as "leprosy" and "a leper." In to help Moses to convince others that God had sent him, God instructed Moses to put his hand into his bosom, and when he took it out, his hand was "leprous (, ''m'tzora'at''), as white as snow." In the Torah sets out regulations for skin diseases (, ''tzara'at'') and a person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora''). In after
Miriam
Miriam ( he, מִרְיָם ''Mīryām'', lit. 'Rebellion') is described in the Hebrew Bible as the daughter of Amram and Jochebed, and the older sister of Moses and Aaron. She was a prophetess and first appears in the Book of Exodus.
The ...
spoke against Moses, God's cloud removed from the Tent of Meeting and "Miriam was leprous (, ''m'tzora'at''), as white as snow." In Moses warned the Israelites in the case of skin disease (, ''tzara'at'') diligently to observe all that the priests would teach them, remembering what God did to Miriam. In 2 Kings
The Book of Kings (, '' Sēfer Məlāḵīm'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Kings) in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. It concludes the Deuteronomistic history, a history of Israel also including the book ...
part of the haftarah
The ''haftara'' or (in Ashkenazic pronunciation) ''haftorah'' (alt. ''haftarah, haphtara'', he, הפטרה) "parting," "taking leave", (plural form: ''haftarot'' or ''haftoros'') is a series of selections from the books of ''Nevi'im'' ("Pro ...
for parashah Tazria, the prophet Elisha
Elisha ( ; or "God is my salvation", Greek: , ''Elis îos'' or , ''Elisaié,'' Latin: ''Eliseus'') was, according to the Hebrew Bible, a prophet and a wonder-worker. His name is commonly transliterated into English as Elisha via Hebrew, Eli ...
cures Naaman, the commander of the army of the king of Aram, who was a "leper" (, ''metzora''). In part of the haftarah for parashah Metzora, the story is told of four "leprous men" (, ''m'tzora'im'') at the gate during the Arameans' siege of Samaria
Samaria (; he, שֹׁמְרוֹן, translit=Šōmrōn, ar, السامرة, translit=as-Sāmirah) is the historic and biblical name used for the central region of Palestine, bordered by Judea to the south and Galilee to the north. The first ...
. And in 2 Chronicles
The Book of Chronicles ( he, דִּבְרֵי־הַיָּמִים ) is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Chronicles) in the Christian Old Testament. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third sect ...
after King Uzziah tried to burn incense in the Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two now-destroyed religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jeru ...
, "leprosy (, ''tzara'at'') broke forth on his forehead."
The Torah mentions the combination of ear, thumb, and toe in three places. In God instructed Moses how to initiate the priests, telling him to kill a ram, take some of its blood, and put it on the tip of the right ear of Aaron and his sons, on the thumb of their right hand, and on the great toe of their right foot, and dash the remaining blood against the altar round about. And then reports that Moses followed God's instructions to initiate Aaron and his sons. Then,17
an
set forth a similar procedure for the cleansing of a person with skin disease (, ''tzara'at''). In God instructed the priest on the day of the person's cleansing to take some of the blood of a guilt-offering and put it upon the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed. And then in God instructed the priest to put oil on the tip of the right ear, the thumb of the right hand, and the great toe of the right foot of the one to be cleansed, on top of the blood of the guilt-offering. And finally, in an
God instructed the priest to repeat the procedure on the eighth day to complete the person's cleansing.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:Leviticus chapter 14
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's de ...
taught that the skin disease in signified voluntary depravity.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in theserabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as '' semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form o ...
nic sources from the era of the Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
and the Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
:
Leviticus chapter 14
TractateNegaim
Neghaʿim (Hebrew: נגעים, "Blemishes") is the third tractate of the order of Tohorot in the Mishnah. It consists of fourteen chapters. Nega'im describes the various forms of ''tzaraath'', a leprosy-like disease described in the Parshiyot of T ...
in the Mishnah and Tosefta
The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
interpreted the laws of skin disease in
calls on the Israelites to obey God's "statutes" (, ''chukim'') and "ordinances" (, ''mishpatim''). The Rabbis in a Baraita
''Baraita'' ( Aramaic: "external" or "outside"; pl. ''Barayata'' or ''Baraitot''; also Baraitha, Beraita; Ashkenazi: Beraisa) designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. ''Baraita'' thus refers to teachings ...
taught that the "ordinances" (, ''mishpatim'') were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" (, ''chukim'') were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to purification of the person with skin disease (, ''tzara'at'', in ), wool-linen mixtures (, '' shaatnez'', in and ), release from levirate marriage (, ''chalitzah
''Halizah'' (or ''chalitzah''; he, חליצה) is, under the biblical system of levirate marriage known as ''yibbum'', the process by which a childless widow and a brother of her deceased husband may avoid the duty to marry.
The process involve ...
'', in ), and the he goat for Azazel (in ). So that people do not think these "ordinances" (, ''mishpatim'') to be empty acts, in God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.
The Midrash noted that many things appear lowly, but God commanded many precepts to be performed with them. The hyssop, for instance, appears to be of no worth to people, yet its power is great in the eyes of God, who put it on a level with cedar in the purification of the leper in and the burning of the Red Cow in18
and employed it in the Exodus from Egypt in Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Joseph ben Zimra that anyone who bears evil tales (, ''
lashon hara
''Lashon hara'' (or ''loshon horo'', or ''loshon hora'') ( he, לשון הרע; "evil tongue") is the halakhic term for speech about a person or persons that is negative or harmful to them, even though it is true. It is speech that damages the p ...
'') will be visited by the plague of skin disease (, ''tzara’at''), as it is said in Psalm
The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived f ...
"Whoever slanders his neighbor in secret, him will I destroy (''azmit'')." The Gemara read ''azmit'' to allude to , ''tzara’at'', and cited how says "in perpetuity" (''la-zemitut''). And Resh Lakish
Shim‘on ben Lakish ( he, שמעון בן לקיש; arc, שמעון בר לקיש ''Shim‘on bar Lakish'' or ''bar Lakisha''), better known by his nickname Reish Lakish (c. 200 — c. 275), was an amora who lived in the Roman province of Judae ...
interpreted the words of "This shall be the law of the person with skin disease (''metzora'')," to mean, "This shall be the law for him who brings up an evil name (''motzi shem ra'')." And the Gemara reported that in the Land of Israel
The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (see also Isr ...
they taught that slander kills three persons: the slanderer, the one who accepts it, and the one about whom the slander is told.
Similarly, Rabbi Haninah
Hanina(h) ben Ahi Rabbi Joshua ( he, חנינא בן אחי רבי יהושע), or Hananiah ben Ahi Rabbi Joshua ( he, חנניה בן אחי רבי יהושע), meaning 'Haninah/Hananiah son of the brother of Rabbi Yehoshua' was a Jewish Tanna s ...
taught that skin disease came only from slander. The Rabbis found a proof for this from the case of Miriam, arguing that because she uttered slander against Moses, plagues attacked her. And the Rabbis read to support this when it says in connection with skin disease, "remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam."
Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that skin disease results from seven things: slander, the shedding of blood, vain oath, incest, arrogance, robbery, and envy. The Gemara cited scriptural bases for each of the associations: For slander, for bloodshed, 2 Samuel
The Book of Samuel (, ''Sefer Shmuel'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Samuel) in the Old Testament. The book is part of the narrative history of Ancient Israel called the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books (Jos ...
for a vain oath, for incest, for arrogance, 2 Chronicles
The Book of Chronicles ( he, דִּבְרֵי־הַיָּמִים ) is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Chronicles) in the Christian Old Testament. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third sect ...
for robbery, (as a Tanna taught that those who collect money that does not belong to them will see a priest come and scatter their money around the street); and for envy,
Similarly, a Midrash
''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
taught that skin disease resulted from 10 sins: (1) idol-worship, (2) unchastity, (3) bloodshed, (4) the profanation of the Divine Name, (5) blasphemy of the Divine Name, (6) robbing the public, (7) usurping a dignity to which one has no right, (8) overweening pride, (9) evil speech, and (10) an evil eye. The Midrash cited as proofs: (1) for idol-worship, the experience of the Israelites who said of the Golden Calf, "This is your god, O Israel," in and then were smitten with leprosy, as reported in where "Moses saw that the people had broken out (''parua'', )," indicating that leprosy had "broken out" (''parah'') among them; (2) for unchastity, from the experience of the daughters of Zion of whom says, "the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched-forth necks and ogling eyes," and then says, "Therefore will the Lord smite with a scab the crown of the head of the daughters of Zion"; (3) for bloodshed, from the experience of ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
Joab
Joab (Hebrew Modern: ''Yōʼav'', Tiberian: ''Yōʼāḇ'') the son of Zeruiah, was the nephew of King David and the commander of his army, according to the Hebrew Bible.
Name
The name Joab is, like many other Hebrew names, theophoric - de ...
, of whom says, "Let it fall upon the head of Joab, and upon all his father's house; and let there not fail from the house of Joab one that hath an issue, or that is a leper," (4) for the profanation of the Divine Name, from the experience of Gehazi
Gehazi, Geichazi, or Giezi ( Douay-Rheims) (Hebrew: ; ''Gēḥăzī''; "valley of vision"), is a figure found in the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible.
A servant of the prophet Elisha, Gehazi enjoyed a position of power but was ultimately corrupt ...
, of whom says, "But Gehazi, the servant of Elisha the man of God
A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromo ...
, said: ‘Behold, my master has spared this Naaman the Aramean
The Arameans ( oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; syc, ܐܪ̈ܡܝܐ, Ārāmāyē) were an ancient Semitic-speaking people in the Near East, first recorded in historical sources from the late 12th century BCE. The Aramean ...
, in not receiving at his hands that which he brought; as the Lord lives, I will surely run after him, and take of him somewhat (''me'umah'', )," and "somewhat" (''me'umah'', ) means "of the blemish" (''mum'', ) that Naaman had, and thus Gehazi was smitten with leprosy, as reports Elisha said to Gehazi, "The leprosy therefore of Naaman shall cleave to you"; (5) for blaspheming the Divine Name, from the experience of Goliath
Goliath ( ) ''Goləyāṯ''; ar, جُليات ''Ǧulyāt'' (Christian term) or (Quranic term). is a character in the Book of Samuel, described as a Philistine giant defeated by the young David in single combat. The story signified King Sau ...
, of whom says, "And the Philistine cursed David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
by his God," and the says, "This day will the Lord deliver (''sagar'', ) you," and the term "deliver" (, ''sagar'') is used here in the same sense as uses it with regard to leprosy, when it is says, "And the priest shall shut him up (, ''sagar'')"; (6) for robbing the public, from the experience of Shebna
Shebna () was the royal steward (''`asher `al ha-bayith'', "he who is over the house"; the chief or prime minister of state) in the reign of king Hezekiah of Judah, according to the Hebrew Bible.
Because of his pride he was ejected from his off ...
, who derived illicit personal benefit from property of the Sanctuary, and of whom says, "the Lord . . . will wrap you round and round," and "wrap" must refer to a leper, of whom says, "And he shall wrap himself over the upper lip"; (7) for usurping a dignity to which one has no right, from the experience of Uzziah, of whom says, "And Uzziah the king was a leper to the day of his death"; (8) for overweening pride, from the same example of Uzziah, of whom says, "But when he became strong, his heart was lifted up, so that he did corruptly and he trespassed against the Lord his God"; (9) for evil speech, from the experience of Miriam, of whom says, "And Miriam . . . spoke against Moses," and then says, "when the cloud was removed from over the Tent, behold Miriam was leprous"; and (10) for an evil eye, from the person described in which can be read, "And he that keeps his house to himself shall come to the priest, saying: There seems to me to be a plague in the house," and thus describes one who is not willing to permit any other to have any benefit from the house.
Similarly, Rabbi Judah the Levite, son of Rabbi Shalom, inferred that skin disease comes because of eleven sins: (1) for cursing the Divine Name, (2) for immorality, (3) for bloodshed, (4) for ascribing to another a fault that is not in him, (5) for haughtiness, (6) for encroaching upon other people's domains, (7) for a lying tongue, (8) for theft, (9) for swearing falsely, (10) for profanation of the name of Heaven, and (11) for idolatry. Rabbi Isaac added: for ill-will. And our Rabbis said: for despising the words of the Torah.
It was taught in a Baraita that four types of people are accounted as though they were dead: a poor person, a person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora''), a blind person, and one who is childless. A poor person is accounted as dead, for says, "for all the men are dead who sought your life" (and the Gemara interpreted this to mean that they had been stricken with poverty). A person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora'') is accounted as dead, for says, "And Aaron looked upon Miriam, and behold, she was leprous (, ''metzora'at''). And Aaron said to Moses . . . let her not be as one dead." The blind are accounted as dead, for says, "He has set me in dark places, as they that be dead of old." And one who is childless is accounted as dead, for in Rachel
Rachel () was a Biblical figure, the favorite of Jacob's two wives, and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, two of the twelve progenitors of the tribes of Israel. Rachel's father was Laban. Her older sister was Leah, Jacob's first wife. Her aun ...
said, "Give me children, or else I am dead."
A Midrash taught that Divine Justice first attacks a person's substance and then the person's body. So when leprous plagues come upon a person, first they come upon the fabric of the person's house. If the person repents, then requires that only the affected stones need to be pulled out; if the person does not repent, then requires pulling down the house. Then the plagues come upon the person's clothes. If the person repents, then the clothes require washing; if not, they require burning. Then the plagues come upon the person's body. If the person repents, provides for purification; if not, then ordains that the person "shall dwell alone."
Similarly, the Tosefta reported that when a person would come to the priest, the priest would tell the person to engage in self-examination and turn from evil ways. The priest would continue that plagues come only from gossip, and skin disease from arrogance. But God would judge in mercy. The plague would come to the house, and if the homeowner repented, the house required only dismantling, but if the homeowner did not repent, the house required demolition. They would appear on clothing, and if the owner repented, the clothing required only tearing, but if the owner did not repent, the clothing required burning. They would appear on the person's body, and if the person repented, well and good, but if the person did not repent, required that the person "shall dwell alone."
In the priest's examination of skin disease mandated by9
and the Mishnah taught that a priest could examine anyone else's symptoms, but not his own. And
Rabbi Meir
Rabbi Meir ( he, רַבִּי מֵאִיר) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishnah. He was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the fourth generation (139-163). He is the third most frequently mentioned sage in the Mis ...
taught that the priest could not examine his relatives. The Mishnah taught that anyone could inspect skin disease, but only a priest could declare it unclean or clean. The Mishnah taught that the priests delayed examining a bridegroom — as well as his house and his garment — until after his seven days of rejoicing, and delayed examining anyone until after a holy day.
Rabbi Joshua ben Levi
Joshua ben Levi (Yehoshua ben Levi) was an amora, a scholar of the Talmud, who lived in the Land of Israel in the first half of the third century. He lived and taught in the city of Lod. He was an elder contemporary of Johanan bar Nappaha an ...
taught that required "two living clean birds" to be brought to purify the person afflicted with skin disease because the afflicted person did the work of a babbler in spreading evil tales, and therefore required that the afflicted person offer babbling birds as a sacrifice.treifah
(also or , ) is a set of dietary laws dealing with the foods that Jewish people are permitted to eat and how those foods must be prepared according to Jewish law. Food that may be consumed is deemed kosher ( in English, yi, כּשר), fr ...
'' birds (birds with an injury or defect that would prevent them from living out a year). The Gemara interpreted the word "birds" (, ''zipparim'') to mean kosher birds. The Gemara deduced from the words of "Every bird (, ''zippor'') ''that is clean'' you may eat," that some ''zipparim'' are forbidden as unclean — namely, birds slaughtered pursuant to The Gemara interpreted the words of "And these are they of which you shall not eat," to refer to birds slaughtered pursuant to And the Gemara taught that repeats the commandment so as to teach that one who consumes a bird slaughtered pursuant to infringes both a positive and a negative commandment.
Rabbi Isaac taught that God told Noah
Noah ''Nukh''; am, ኖህ, ''Noḥ''; ar, نُوح '; grc, Νῶε ''Nôe'' () is the tenth and last of the pre-Flood patriarchs in the traditions of Abrahamic religions. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible (Book of Genesis, chapters 5 ...
that just as a pair of birds (''ken'') cleansed a person with skin disease (as instructed in ), so Noah's Ark
Noah's Ark ( he, תיבת נח; Biblical Hebrew: ''Tevat Noaḥ'')The word "ark" in modern English comes from Old English ''aerca'', meaning a chest or box. (See Cresswell 2010, p.22) The Hebrew word for the vessel, ''teva'', occurs twice in ...
would cleanse Noah (so that he would be worthy to be saved from the Flood).
Rabbi Hanina ben Gamaliel interpreted the words "completely blue (, ''techelet'')" in to teach that blue dye used to test the dye is unfit for further use to dye the blue, ''techelet
''Tekhelet'' ( he, תְּכֵלֶת ''təḵēleṯ''; alternate spellings include ''tekheleth'', ''t'chelet'', ''techelet'' and ''techeiles'') is a "blue-violet", "blue", or "turquoise" dye highly prized by ancient Mediterranean civilizations. I ...
'' strand of a ''tzitzit
''Tzitzit'' ( he, ''ṣīṣīṯ'', ; plural ''ṣīṣiyyōṯ'', Ashkenazi: '; and Samaritan: ') are specially knotted ritual fringes, or tassels, worn in antiquity by Israelites and today by observant Jews and Samaritans. are usual ...
'', interpreting the word "completely" to mean "full strength." But Rabbi Johanan ben Dahabai taught that even the second dyeing using the same dye is valid, reading the words "and scarlet" (, ''ushni tolalat'') in to mean "a second ying
Ying may refer to:
People
* Yíng (嬴), a Chinese surname, the ancestral name of Qin Shi Huang, first Emperor of China in the Qin Dynasty, and some contemporary rival royal families such as the Zhaos
* Yīng (应), a Chinese surname from the Z ...
of red wool."
A Midrash noted that God commanded the Israelites to perform certain precepts with similar material from trees: God commanded that the Israelites throw cedar wood and hyssop into the Red Heifer mixture of and use hyssop to sprinkle the resulting waters of lustration in God commanded that the Israelites use cedar wood and hyssop to purify those stricken with skin disease in and in Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
God commanded the Israelites to use the bunch of hyssop to strike the lintel and the two side-posts with blood in
A Midrash interpreted the words, "And he spoke of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon even to the hyssop that springs out of the wall," in to teach that Solomon
Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...
interpreted the requirement in to use cedar wood and hyssop to purify those stricken with skin disease. Solomon asked why the person stricken with skin disease was purified by means of the tallest and lowest of trees. And Solomon answered that the person's raising himself up like a cedar caused him to be smitten with skin disease, but making himself small and humbling himself like the hyssop caused him be healed.
When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel
The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (see also Isr ...
, he said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that there were three red threads: one in connection with the red cow in the second in connection with the "scapegoat
In the Bible, a scapegoat is one of a pair of kid goats that is released into the wilderness, taking with it all sins and impurities, while the other is sacrificed. The concept first appears in the Book of Leviticus, in which a goat is designate ...
for Azazel" in the Yom Kippur
Yom Kippur (; he, יוֹם כִּפּוּר, , , ) is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, the first month of the Hebrew calendar. Primarily centered on atonement and repentance, the day' ...
service of (whicMishnah Yoma 4:2
indicates was marked with a red thread), and the third in connection with the person with skin disease (, ''metzora'') in Rav Dimi reported that one weighed ten '' zuz'', another weighed two ''selas'', and the third weighed a
shekel
Shekel or sheqel ( akk, 𒅆𒅗𒇻 ''šiqlu'' or ''siqlu,'' he, שקל, plural he, שקלים or shekels, Phoenician: ) is an ancient Mesopotamian coin, usually of silver. A shekel was first a unit of weight—very roughly —and became c ...
, but he could not say which was which. When Rabin came, he said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that the thread in connection with the red cow weighed ten ''zuz'', that of the goat for Azazel weighed two ''selas'', and that of the person with skin disease weighed a shekel. Rabbi Johanan said that Rabbi Simeon ben Halafta and the Sages disagreed about the thread of the red cow, one saying that it weighed ten shekels, the other that it weighed one shekel. Rabbi Jeremiah of Difti said to Rabina that they disagreed not about the thread of the red cow, but about that of the goat for Azazel.
The Gemara taught that there were three who were required to cut their hair, and whose hair cutting was a religious duty: nazirites (as stated in ), those afflicted with skin disease (, ''metzora'', as stated in ), and the Levites. Citing the Mishnah, the Gemara taught that if any of them cut their hair without a razor, or left behind two hairs, their act was invalid.
A Master said in a Baraita that the use of the thumb for service in and17
an
showed that every finger has its own unique purpose. and provided that people of lesser means could bring less-expensive offerings. The Mishnah taught that one who sacrificed much and one who sacrificed little attained equal merit, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. Rabbi Zera taught that provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "Sweet is the sleep of a serving man, whether he eat little or much." Rav
Adda bar Ahavah
Adda bar Ahavah or Adda bar Ahabah is the name of two Jewish rabbis and Talmudic scholars, known as Amoraim, who lived in Babylonia.
The amora of the second generation
Rav Adda bar Ahavah was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia, know ...
taught that provided a Scriptural proof for this when it says, "When goods increase, they are increased who eat them; and what advantage is there to the owner thereof." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai
Simeon ben Azzai or simply Ben Azzai ( he, שמעון בן עזאי) was a distinguished tanna of the first third of the 2nd century.
Biography
Ben Azzai is sometimes called "Rabbi", but, in spite of his great learning, this title did not right ...
taught that Scripture says of a large ox, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; of a small bird, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor"; and of a meal-offering, "An offering made by fire of a sweet savor." Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai thus taught that Scripture uses the same expression each time to teach that it is the same whether people offered much or little, so long as they directed their hearts to Heaven. And Rabbi Isaac asked why the meal-offering was distinguished in that uses the word "soul" (, ''nefesh'') to refer to the donor of a meal-offering, instead of the usual "man" (, ''adam'', in or , ''ish'', in ) used in connection with other sacrifices. Rabbi Isaac taught that uses the word "soul" (, ''nefesh'') because God noted that the one who usually brought a meal-offering was a poor man, and God accounted it as if the poor man had offered his own soul.
The Sifra
Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakhic midrash to the Book of Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim" ...
noted that says both, "if he be poor," and "his means do not suffice." The Sifra explained that reading "if he be poor," one might think that the verse allowed a less expensive offering for one who was relatively poorer that earlier, as in the case of one who earlier had 100 '' manehs'' and now had 50 ''manehs''. Thus also says, "his means do not suffice" (as an absolute matter).
Tractate Kinnim
Kinnim (Hebrew: ) is a tractate in the order of Kodshim in the Mishna. The name, meaning "nests", refers to the tractate's subject matter of errors in bird-offerings. It is the last tractate in the order, because of its shortness (3 chapters) and ...
in the Mishnah interpreted the laws of pairs of sacrificial pigeons and doves in and and
The Mishnah taught that they buried the bird offerings of the metzora.
In a Baraita, Rabbi Jose related that a certain Elder from Jerusalem told him that 24 types of patients are afflicted with boils. The Gemara then related that Rabbi Joḥanan warned to be careful of the flies found on those afflicted with the disease ''ra’atan'', as flies carried the disease. Rabbi Zeira would not sit in a spot where the wind blew from the direction of someone afflicted with ''ra’atan''. Rabbi Elazar would not enter the tent of one afflicted with ''ra’atan'', and Rabbi Ami and Rabbi Asi would not eat eggs from an alley in which someone afflicted with ''ra’atan'' lived. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, however, would attach himself to those afflicted with ''ra’atan'' and study Torah, saying this was justified by “The Torah is a loving hind and a graceful doe.” Rabbi Joshua reasoned that if Torah bestows grace on those who learn it, it could protect them from illness. When Rabbi Joshua ben Levi was on the verge of dying, the Gemara told, the Angel of Death was instructed to perform Rabbi Joshua's bidding, as he was a righteous man and deserves to die in the manner he saw fit. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked the Angel of Death to show him his place in paradise, and the Angel agreed. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked the Angel to give him the knife that the Angel used to kill people, lest the Angel frighten him on the way, and the Angel gave it to him. When they arrived in paradise, the Angel lifted Rabbi Joshua so that he could see his place in paradise, and Rabbi Joshua jumped to the other side, escaping into paradise. Elijah
Elijah ( ; he, אֵלִיָּהוּ, ʾĒlīyyāhū, meaning "My El (deity), God is Yahweh/YHWH"; Greek form: Elias, ''Elías''; syr, ܐܸܠܝܼܵܐ, ''Elyāe''; Arabic language, Arabic: إلياس or إليا, ''Ilyās'' or ''Ilyā''. ) w ...
the Prophet then told those in paradise to make way for Rabbi Joshua.
The Gemara told that Rabbi Joshua ben Levi asked Elijah when the Messiah would come, and Elijah told Rabbi Joshua ben Levi that he could find the Messiah sitting at the entrance of the city of Rome among the poor who suffer from illnesses.
In God announced that God would "put the plague of leprosy in a house of the land of your possession." Rabbi Hiyya
Hiyya, or Hiyya the Great, (ca. 180–230 CE) (Hebrew: רבי חייא, or רבי חייא הגדול) was a Jewish sage in the Land of Israel during the transitional generation between the Tannaic and Amoraic eras (1st Amora generation). Activ ...
asked: Was it then a piece of good news that plagues were to come upon them? Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai answered that when the Canaan
Canaan (; Phoenician: 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – ; he, כְּנַעַן – , in pausa – ; grc-bib, Χανααν – ;The current scholarly edition of the Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus T ...
ites heard that the Israelites were approaching, they hid their valuables in their houses. But God promised the Israelites' forbearers that God would bring the Israelites into a land full of good things, including (in the words of ) "houses full of all good things." So God brought plagues upon a house of one of the Israelites so that when he would pull it down, he would find a treasure.
Reading and a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the ''Amidah
The ''Amidah Amuhduh'' ( he, תפילת העמידה, ''Tefilat HaAmidah'', 'The Standing Prayer'), also called the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' ( 'eighteen'), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. Observant Jews recite the ''Amidah'' at each ...
''.
The Sifra read the words "the land of Canaan" in to refer to the Land that God set aside distinctly for the Israelites. The Sifra thus read the words "which I give to you" in to exclude the lands of Ammon
Ammon (Ammonite: 𐤏𐤌𐤍 ''ʻAmān''; he, עַמּוֹן ''ʻAmmōn''; ar, عمّون, ʻAmmūn) was an ancient Semitic-speaking nation occupying the east of the Jordan River, between the torrent valleys of Arnon and Jabbok, in ...
and Moab
Moab ''Mōáb''; Assyrian: 𒈬𒀪𒁀𒀀𒀀 ''Mu'abâ'', 𒈠𒀪𒁀𒀀𒀀
''Ma'bâ'', 𒈠𒀪𒀊 ''Ma'ab''; Egyptian: 𓈗𓇋𓃀𓅱𓈉 ''Mū'ībū'', name=, group= () is the name of an ancient Levantine kingdom whose territ ...
east of the Jordan River
The Jordan River or River Jordan ( ar, نَهْر الْأُرْدُنّ, ''Nahr al-ʾUrdunn'', he, נְהַר הַיַּרְדֵּן, ''Nəhar hayYardēn''; syc, ܢܗܪܐ ܕܝܘܪܕܢܢ ''Nahrāʾ Yurdnan''), also known as ''Nahr Al-Shariea ...
. Thus house plagues could occur only in the Land of Israel west of the Jordan. And Rabbi Ishmael
Rabbi Yishmael ben Elisha Nachmani (Hebrew: רבי ישמעאל בן אלישע), often known as Rabbi Yishmael and sometimes given the title "Ba'al HaBaraita" (Hebrew: בעל הברייתא), was a rabbi of the 1st and 2nd centuries (third gener ...
read the words "of your possession" in to exclude the possession of Gentiles in the Land of Israel from house plagues.
Because addresses "a house of the land," the Mishnah taught that a house built on a ship, on a raft, or on four beams could not be afflicted by a house plague.
A Midrash noted the difference in wording between which says of the Israelites in Goshen that "they got possessions therein," and which says of the Israelites in Canaan, "When you come into the land of Canaan, which I gave you for a possession." The Midrash read to read, "and they were taken in possession by it." The Midrash thus taught that in the case of Goshen, the land seized the Israelites, so that their bond might be exacted and so as to bring about God's declaration to Abraham
Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Je ...
in that the Egyptians would afflict the Israelites for 400 years. But the Midrash read to teach the Israelites that if they were worthy, the Land of Israel would be an eternal possession, but if not, they would be banished from it.
The Rabbis taught that a structure of less than four square cubit
The cubit is an ancient unit of length based on the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was primarily associated with the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Israelites. The term ''cubit'' is found in the Bible regarding ...
s could not contract a house plague. The Gemara explained that in speaking of house plagues, uses the word "house," and a building of less than four square cubits did not constitute a "house."
A Baraita (which the Gemara later said may have reflected the view of Rabbi Meir, or may have reflected the view of the Rabbis) taught that a synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of wor ...
, a house owned by partners, and a house owned by a woman are all subject to uncleanness from house plagues. The Gemara explained that the Baraita needed to expound this because one might have argued that says, "then he who owns the house shall come and tell the priest," and "he who owns the house" could be read to imply "he" but not "she" and "he" but not "they." And therefore the Baraita teaches that one should not read that narrowly. And the Gemara explained that one should not read that narrowly because speaks broadly of "a house of the land of your possession," indicating that all houses in the Land of Israel are susceptible to plagues. The Gemara then asked why bothers to say, "he who owns the house." The Gemara explained that intends to teach that if a homeowner keeps his house to himself exclusively, refusing to lend his belongings, pretending that he did not own them, then God exposes the homeowner by subjecting his house to the plague and causing his belongings to be removed for all to see (as requires). Thus excludes from the infliction of house plagues homeowners who lend their belongings to others.
Similarly, Rabbi Isaac taught that when a person asked to borrow a friend's ax or sieve, and the friend out of selfishness replied that he did not have one, then immediately the plague would attack the friend's house. And as required that they remove everything that he had in his house, including his axes and his sieves, the people would see his possessions and exclaim how selfish he had been.
But the Gemara asked whether a synagogue could be subject to house plagues. For a Baraita (which the Gemara later identified with the view of the Rabbis) taught that one might assume that synagogues and houses of learning are subject to house plagues, and therefore says, "he who has the house will come," to exclude those houses — like synagogues — that do not belong to any one individual. The Gemara proposed a resolution to the conflict by explaining that the first Baraita reflected the opinion of Rabbi Meir, while the second Baraita reflected the opinion of the Rabbis. For a Baraita taught that a synagogue that contains a dwelling for the synagogue attendant is required to have a mezuzah, but a synagogue that contains no dwelling, Rabbi Meir declares it is required to have a mezuzah, but the Sages exempt it.Babylonian Talmud Yoma 11bin, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Yoma'', commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 9, page 50.
Alternatively, the Gemara suggested that both teachings were in accord with the Rabbis. In the first case, the synagogue referred to has a dwelling, and then even the Rabbis would say that it would be subject to house plagues. In the other case, the synagogue referred to has no dwelling, and so would not be subject to house plagues.
Alternatively, the Gemara tentatively suggested that in both cases, the synagogue has no dwelling, but the first teaching refers to urban synagogues, while the second refers to rural synagogues. But the Gemara asked whether urban synagogues really are not subject to uncleanness from house plagues. For a Baraita taught that the words, "in the house of the land of your possession" in teach that a house of the land of the Israelites' possession could become defiled through house plagues, but Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
could not become defiled through house plagues, because Jerusalem did not fall within any single Tribe's inheritance. Rabbi Judah, however, said that he had heard that only the Temple in Jerusalem was unaffected by house plagues. Thus Rabbi Judah's view would imply that synagogues and houses of learning are subject to house plagues even in large cities. The Gemara suggested, however, that one should read Rabbi Judah's view to say that sacred places are not subject to house plagues. The Gemara suggested that the principle that the first Tanna and Rabbi Judah were disputing was whether Jerusalem was divided among the Tribes; the first Tanna holds that Jerusalem was not divided, while Rabbi Judah holds that Jerusalem was divided among the Tribes.
But the Gemara asked whether even rural synagogues could be subject to house plagues. For a Baraita taught that the words, "in the house of the land of your possession" in teach that house plagues would not affect the Israelites until they conquered the Land of Israel. Furthermore, if the Israelites had conquered the Land but not yet divided it among the Tribes, or even divided it among the Tribes but not divided it among the families, or even divided it among the families but not given each person his holding, then house plagues would not yet affect the Israelites. It is to teach this result that says, "he who has the house," teaching that house plagues can occur only to those in the Land of Israel to whom alone the house belongs, excluding these houses that do not belong to an owner alone. Thus the Gemara rejected the explanation based on differences between urban and rural synagogues.
The Mishnah interpreted the words, "there seems to me to be as it were a plague in the house" in to teach that even a learned sage who knows that he has definitely seen a sign of plague in a house may not speak with certainty. Rather, even the sage must say, "there ''seems'' to me to be as it were a plague in the house."
The Mishnah interpreted the instruction to empty the house in Rabbi Judah taught that they removed even bundles of wood and even bundles of reeds. Rabbi Simeon remarked that this (removal of bundles that are not susceptible to uncleanness) was idle business. But Rabbi Meir responded by asking which of the homeowner's goods could become unclean. Articles of wood, cloth, or metal surely could be immersed in a ritual bath and become clean. The only thing that the Torah spared was the homeowner's earthenware, even his and his ewer (which, if the house proved unclean, indicates would have to be broken). If the Torah thus spared a person's humble possessions, how much more so would the Torah spare a person's cherished possessions. If the Torah shows so much consideration for material possessions, how much more so would the Torah show for the lives of a person's children. If the Torah shows so much consideration for the possessions of a wicked person (if we take the plague as a punishment for the sin of slander), how much more so would the Torah show for the possessions of a righteous person.
Reading to say, "And he shall look on the plague, and behold the plague," the Sifra interpreted the double allusion to teach that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in at least the size of ''two'' split beans. And because addresses the house's "walls" in the plural, the Sifra taught that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared on at least four walls. Consequently, the Mishnah taught that a round house or a triangular house could not contract uncleanness from a house plague.
Because addresses the house's "stones" in the plural, Rabbi Akiva
Akiva ben Yosef (Mishnaic Hebrew: ''ʿĂqīvāʾ ben Yōsēf''; – 28 September 135 CE), also known as Rabbi Akiva (), was a leading Jewish scholar and sage, a '' tanna'' of the latter part of the first century and the beginning of the second c ...
ruled that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in at least the size of two split beans on two stones, and not on only one stone. And because addresses the house's "walls" in the plural, Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi Simeon said that a sign of house plague was no cause of uncleanness unless it appeared in the size of two split beans, on two stones, on two walls in a corner, its length being that of two split beans and its breadth that of one split bean.
Because addresses the "stones," "timber," and "mortar" of the house afflicted by a house plague, the Mishnah taught that only a house made of stones, timber, and mortar could be afflicted by a house plague. And the Mishnah taught that the quantity of wood must be enough to build a threshold, and quantity of mortar must be enough to fill up the space between one row of stones and another.
A Baraita taught that there never was a leprous house within the meaning of and never will be. The Gemara asked why then the law was written, and replied that it was so that one may study it and receive reward. But Rabbi Eliezer the son of Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Simeon of Kefar Acco both cited cases where local tradition reported the ruins of such houses, in Gaza and Galilee
Galilee (; he, הַגָּלִיל, hagGālīl; ar, الجليل, al-jalīl) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon. Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and Lower Gali ...
, respectively.
A Midrash read the discussion of the house stricken with plague in as a prophecy. The Midrash read the words, "and I put the plague of leprosy in a house of the land of your possession," in to allude to the Temple, about which in God says, "I will defile My sanctuary, the pride of your power, the desire of your eyes, and the longing of your soul." The Midrash read the words, "then He whose house it is shall come," in to allude to God, about Whom says, "Because of My house that lies waste." The Midrash read the words, "and He shall tell the priest," in to allude to Jeremiah
Jeremiah, Modern: , Tiberian: ; el, Ἰερεμίας, Ieremíās; meaning "Yah shall raise" (c. 650 – c. 570 BC), also called Jeremias or the "weeping prophet", was one of the major prophets of the Hebrew Bible. According to Jewis ...
, who identified as a priest. The Midrash read the words, "there seems to me to be, as it were, a plague in the house," in to allude to the idol that King Manasseh
Manasseh (; Hebrew: ''Mənaššé'', "Forgetter"; akk, 𒈨𒈾𒋛𒄿 ''Menasî'' 'me-na-si-i'' grc-gre, Μανασσῆς ''Manasses''; la, Manasses) was the fourteenth king of the Kingdom of Judah. He was the oldest of the sons of Hezekia ...
set up in The Midrash read the words, "and the priest shall command that they empty the house," in to allude to King Shishak
Shishak, Shishaq or Susac (, Tiberian: , ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, an Egyptian pharaoh who sacked Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE. He is usually identified with the pharaoh Shoshenq I.Troy Leiland Sagrillo. 2015.Shoshenq I and bib ...
of Egypt, who reports, "took away the treasures of the house of the Lord." The Midrash read the words, "and he shall break down the house," in to allude to King Nebuchadnezzar
Nebuchadnezzar II (Babylonian cuneiform: ''Nabû-kudurri-uṣur'', meaning "Nabu, watch over my heir"; Biblical Hebrew: ''Nəḇūḵaḏneʾṣṣar''), also spelled Nebuchadrezzar II, was the second king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling ...
of Babylon, who reports destroyed the Temple. The Midrash read the words, "and they shall pour out the dust that they have scraped off outside the city," in to allude to the Israelites taken away to the Babylonian Captivity
The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylon, the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, following their defeat ...
, whom reports Nebuchadnezzar "carried ... away into Babylon." And the Midrash read the words, "and they shall take other stones, and put them in the place of those stones," in to allude to the Israelites who would come to restore Israel, and of whom reports God saying, "Behold, I lay in Zion for a foundation stone, a tried stone, a costly corner-stone of sure foundation; he that believes shall not make haste."
Leviticus chapter 15
TractateZavim
Zavim is the ninth tractate in the Mishnah and Tosefta of the sixth Talmudic order Tohorot. It deals with the laws of the zav and zavah
In Jewish ritual law, a ''zavah'' (Hebrew זבה, lit. "one whoe bodyflows") is a woman who has had vaginal b ...
in the Mishnah and Tosefta interpreted the laws of male genital discharges in
The Mishnah taught that they inquired along seven lines before they determined that a genital discharge rendered a man unclean. A discharge caused by one of these reasons did not render the man impure or subject him to bringing an offering. They asked: (1) about his food, (2) about his drink, (3) what he had carried, (4) whether he had jumped, (5) whether he had been ill, (6) what he had seen, and (7) whether he had obscene thoughts. It did not matter whether he had had thoughts before or after seeing a woman. Rabbi Judah taught that the discharge would not render him unclean if he had watched animals having intercourse or even if he merely saw a woman's dyed garments. Rabbi Akiva taught that the discharge would not render him unclean even if he had eaten any kind of food, good or bad, or had drunk any kind of liquid. The Sages exclaimed to Rabbi Akiva that according to his view, no more men would ever be rendered unclean by genital discharge. Rabbi Akiva replied that one does not have an obligation to ensure that there exist men unclean because of a genital discharges.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Hisma taught that even the apparently arcane laws of bird offerings in and menstrual cycles in and are essential laws.
Tractate Niddah
Niddah (or nidah; he, נִדָּה), in traditional Judaism, describes a woman who has experienced a uterine discharge of blood (most commonly during menstruation), or a woman who has menstruated and not yet completed the associated requirem ...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of menstruation in
Rabbi Meir taught that the Torah ordained that menstruation should separate a wife from her husband for seven days, because if the husband were in constant contact with his wife, the husband might become disenchanted with her. The Torah, therefore, ordained that a wife might be unclean for seven days (and therefore forbidden to her husband for marital relations) so that she should become as desirable to her husband as when she first entered the bridal chamber.
The Mishnah taught that all women are presumed clean for their husbands (and for the purpose of marital relations, no examination is required). The Mishnah taught that it is also true for men who return from a journey that their wives are presumed clean.
Interpreting the beginning of menstrual cycles, as in the Mishnah ruled that if a woman loses track of her menstrual cycle, there is no return to the beginning of the ''niddah'' count in fewer than seven, nor more than seventeen days.
The Mishnah taught that a woman may attribute a bloodstain to any external cause to which she can possibly attribute it and thus regard herself as clean. If, for instance, she had killed an animal, she was handling bloodstains, she had sat beside those who handled bloodstains, or she had killed a louse, she may attribute the stain to those external causes.
The Mishnah related that a woman once came to Rabbi Akiva and told him that she had observed a bloodstain. He asked her whether she perhaps had a wound. She replied that she had a wound, but it had healed. He asked whether it was possible that it could open again and bleed. She answered in the affirmative, and Rabbi Akiva declared her clean. Observing that his disciples looked at each other in astonishment, he told them that the Sages did not lay down the rule for bloodstains to create a strict result but rather to produce a lenient result, for says, "If a woman has an issue, and her issue in her flesh is blood" — only blood, not a bloodstain.
Tractate Mikvaot
Tractate Miqwaʾoth (Hebrew: מקואות, lit. "Pools of Water"; in Talmudic Hebrew: ''Miqwaʾoth'') is a section of the Mishna discussing the laws pertaining to the building and maintenance of a mikvah, a Jewish ritual bath. Like most of Seder T ...
in the Mishnah and Tosefta interpreted the laws of the ritual bath (, ''mikveh
Mikveh or mikvah (, ''mikva'ot'', ''mikvoth'', ''mikvot'', or (Yiddish) ''mikves'', lit., "a collection") is a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism to achieve ritual purity.
Most forms of ritual impurity can be purifi ...
'') prescribed for the cleansing of menstruants in
The Mishnah taught that there are six grades of ritual baths, each higher than the other. The first is rainwater in a water hole. Superior to that is the water of rain drippings that have not stopped. Superior to that is the water of a mikveh containing 40 '' se'ahs'' of water, for in such a mikveh persons may immerse themselves and immerse others. Superior to that is the water of a fountain whose own water is little but has been increased by a greater quantity of drawn water. Superior to that are salty or hot waters from a spring, which can render clean when flowing. And superior to that are living waters, which serve for the immersion of persons who have a running issue and for the sprinkling of persons with skin disease, and are valid for the preparation of the water of purification.
The Mishnah taught that any pool of water that mingles with the water of a mikveh is as valid as the mikveh itself. The Mishnah taught that one may immerse in holes and crevices of a cavern just as they are, but one may not immerse in the pit of a cavern except if it has an opening as big as the tube of a water skin. Rabbi Judah taught that this is the case when it stands by itself (and forms an independent pool separated by a wall from the pool in the cavern), but if it does not stand by itself, one may immerse in it just as it is (for it is part of the pool in the cavern).
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in thesemedieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 14
Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
reported an interpretation by Rabbi Moshe ha-Darshan
Moshe haDarshan (circa early 11th century) ( he, משה הדרשן, trans. "Moses the preacher") was chief of the yeshiva of Narbonne, and perhaps the founder of Jewish exegetical studies in France. Along with Rashi, his writings are often cited ...
(the preacher) that since the Levites were submitted in atonement for the firstborn who had practiced idolatry when they worshipped the Golden Calf (in ), and calls idol worship "sacrifices to the dead," and in Moses called one afflicted with skin disease (, ''tzara'at'') "as one dead," and required those afflicted with skin disease to shave, therefore God required the Levites too to shave.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:Leviticus chapter 14
Professor Ephraim Speiser of theUniversity of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn or UPenn) is a Private university, private research university in Philadelphia. It is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and is ranked among the highest- ...
in the mid 20th century wrote that the word “Torah” () is based on a verbal stem signifying “to teach, guide,” and the like, and the derived noun can carry a variety of meanings, including in 54
an
specific rituals for what is sometimes called leprosy. Speiser argued that in context, the word cannot be mistaken for the title of the Pentateuch as a whole. Professor
Jacob Milgrom
Jacob Milgrom (February 1, 1923 – June 5, 2010) was a prominent American Jewish Bible scholar and Conservative rabbi. Milgrom's major contribution to biblical research was in the field of cult and worship. Although he accepted the documentar ...
, formerly of the University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California. Established in 1868 as the University of California, it is the state's first land-grant un ...
, noted that reddish substances, surrogates for blood, were among the ingredients of the purificatory rites for scale-diseased and corpse-contaminated persons, symbolizing the victory of the forces of life over death.
Leviticus chapter 15
Dr. Elaine Goodfriend ofCalifornia State University, Northridge
California State University, Northridge (CSUN or Cal State Northridge) is a public university in the Northridge neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. With a total enrollment of 38,551 students (as of Fall 2021), it has the second largest un ...
, argued that the regulations of menstruation in probably had a smaller practical impact on women in ancient Israel than one might imagine, as women at that time probably menstruated less frequently than modern women due to sparser diet, more-frequent pregnancies, and longer breast-feeding (typically three years), all of which would have reduced their number of menstrual cycles.
Professor Shaye Cohen of Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of highe ...
noted that the only element in common between the “ritual” or physical impurities of and the “dangerous” or sinful impurities of is intercourse with a menstruant.
Commandments
According to theSefer ha-Chinuch
''Sefer ha-Chinuch'' ( he, ספר החינוך, "Book of Education") is a Jewish rabbinic text which systematically discusses the 613 commandments of the Torah. It was published anonymously in 13th-century Spain. History
The work's enumeration of ...
, there are 11 positive and no negative commandments
Commandment may refer to:
* The Ten Commandments
* One of the 613 mitzvot of Judaism
* The Great Commandment
* The New Commandment
The New Commandment is a term used in Christianity to describe Jesus's commandment to "love one another" which, ac ...
in the parashah:
*To carry out the prescribed rules for purifying the person affected by skin disease (, ''tzara'at'')
*The person affected by skin disease (, ''tzara'at'') must shave off all his hair prior to purification.
*Every impure person must immerse in a mikveh to become pure.
*A person affected by skin disease (, ''tzara'at'') must bring an offering after going to the mikveh.
*To observe the laws of impurity caused by a house's , ''tzara'at''
*To observe the laws of impurity caused by a man's running issue
*A man who had a running issue must bring an offering after he goes to the mikveh.
*To observe the laws of impurity of a seminal emission
*To observe the laws of menstrual impurity
*To observe the laws of impurity caused by a woman's running issue
*A woman who had a running issue must bring an offering after she goes to the mikveh.
In the liturgy
Some Jews refer to the guilt offerings for skin disease in as part of readings on the offerings after the Sabbath morning blessings. Following the ''Shacharit
''Shacharit'' ( he, שַחֲרִית ''šaḥăriṯ''), or ''Shacharis'' in Ashkenazi Hebrew, is the morning ''tefillah'' (prayer) of Judaism, one of the three daily prayers.
Different traditions identify different primary components o ...
'' morning prayer service, some Jews recite the Six Remembrances, among which is "Remember what the Lord your God did to Miriam by the way as you came forth out of Egypt," recalling that God punished Miriam with , ''tzara'at''.
The laws of a house afflicted with plague in provide an application of the twelfth of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael
The Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael ( he, ברייתא דרבי ישמעאל) is a baraita which explains the 13 rules of Rabbi Ishmael, and their application, by means of illustrations from the Torah. The name is inaccurately given also to the first p ...
that many Jews read as part of the readings before the '' Pesukei d'Zimrah'' prayer service. The twelfth rule provides that one may elucidate a matter from its context or from a passage following it. describes the laws of the house afflicted with plague generally. But because instructs what to do with the "stones ... timber ... and all the mortar of the house," the Rabbis interpret the laws of the house afflicted with plague to apply only to houses made of stones, timber, and mortar.
Haftarah
Thehaftarah
The ''haftara'' or (in Ashkenazic pronunciation) ''haftorah'' (alt. ''haftarah, haphtara'', he, הפטרה) "parting," "taking leave", (plural form: ''haftarot'' or ''haftoros'') is a series of selections from the books of ''Nevi'im'' ("Pro ...
for the parashah is
Summary
During the Arameans' siege of Samaria, four leprous men at the gate asked each other why they should die there of starvation, when they might go to the Arameans, who would either save them or leave them no worse than they were. When at twilight, they went to the Arameans' camp, there was no one there, for God had made the Arameans hear chariots, horses, and a great army, and fearing theHittites
The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-cent ...
and the Egyptians, they fled, leaving their tents, their horses, their donkeys, and their camp. The lepers went into a tent, ate and drank, and carried away silver, gold, and clothing from the tents and hid it.
Feeling qualms of guilt, they went to go tell the king of Samaria, and called to the porters of the city telling them what they had seen, and the porters told the king's household within. The king arose in the night, and told his servants that he suspected that the Arameans had hidden in the field, thinking that when the Samaritans came out, they would be able to get into the city. One of his servants suggested that some men take five of the horses that remained and go see, and they took two chariots with horses to go and see. They went after the Arameans as far as the Jordan River, and all the way was littered with garments and vessels that the Arameans had cast away in their haste, and the messengers returned and told the king. So the people went out and looted Arameans' camp, so that the market price of; a measure (seah) of fine flour (about six dry qt., six lb. or three kg.) and two seahs of barley meal; each dropped to one shekel in price, as God's prophet had said it would. And the king appointed the captain on whom he leaned to take charge of the gate, and the people trampled him and killed him before he could taste of the flour, just as the man of God Elisha had said.
Connection to the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah deal with people stricken with skin disease. Both the parashah and the haftarah employ the term for the person affected by skin disease (, ''metzora''). Just before parashah Metzora, in the sister parashah Tazria, provides that the person with skin disease "shall dwell alone; without the camp shall his dwelling be," thus explaining why the four leprous men in the haftarah lived outside the gate. Rabbi Johanan taught that the four leprous men at the gate in were none other than Elisha's former servant Gehazi (whom the Midrash, above, cited as having been stricken with leprosy for profanation of the Divine Name) and his three sons. In the parashah, when there "seems" to be a plague in the house, the priest must not jump to conclusions, but must examine the facts. Just before the opening of the haftarah, in the captain on whom the king leaned jumps to the conclusion that Elisha's prophecy could not come true, and the captain meets his punishment in an19.
The haftarah in classical rabbinic interpretation
Reading "Now there were four leprous men at the entrance of the gate; and they said one to another: 'Why do we sit here until we die? If we say: "We will enter into the city," then the famine is in the city, and we shall die there; and if we sit still here, we die also. Now therefore come, and let us go to the host of the Arameans; if they save us alive, we shall live; and if they kill us, we shall but die,’" and "And there was a famine in the land; and Abram went down into Egypt to sojourn there," the Rabbis deduced that when there is a famine a place, one should migrate elsewhere. And the Gemara taught that the Rabbis cited in addition to because one might think from that this advice applies only where there is no danger to life in the destination. So they also cited "Now therefore come, and let us go to the host of the Arameans; if they save us alive, we shall live."The haftarah in modern interpretation
Professor Choon-Leong Seow ofVanderbilt University
Vanderbilt University (informally Vandy or VU) is a private research university in Nashville, Tennessee. Founded in 1873, it was named in honor of shipping and rail magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt, who provided the school its initial $1-million ...
noted that lepers, outcasts of society, discovered that the Arameans had deserted their camp, and it was through them that the news came to the Israelites, while those in power doubted divine deliverance. And while the faithless king did not accept the news, a nameless servant provided a solution that led to the fulfillment of prophecy. Thus, God brought about salvation for the Israelites through the outcasts and the lowly of society.
On Shabbat HaGadol
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaGadol (the "Great Shabbat," the special Sabbath immediately beforePassover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holiday that celebrates the Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan, the first month of Aviv, or spring. ...
— as it does in 2019, 2022, 2024, and 2027), the haftarah is
On Shabbat HaChodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaChodesh ("Sabbath fthe month," the special Sabbath preceding the Hebrew month ofNissan
, trading as Nissan Motor Corporation and often shortened to Nissan, is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Nishi-ku, Yokohama, Japan. The company sells its vehicles under the Nissan, Infiniti, and Datsun bra ...
— as it did in 2008), the haftarah is:
*for Ashkenazi Jews:
*for Sephardi Jews:
Connection to the special Sabbath
On Shabbat HaChodesh, Jews read in which God commands that "This monthissan
Northeast Thailand or Isan (Isan/ th, อีสาน, ; lo, ອີສານ; also written as Isaan, Isarn, Issarn, Issan, Esan, or Esarn; from Pali ''īsānna'' or Sanskrit ईशान्य ''īśānya'' "northeast") consists of 20 provin ...
shall be the beginning of months; it shall be the first month of the year," and in which God issued the commandments of Passover. Similarly, the haftarah in discusses Passover. In both the special reading and the haftarah, God instructs the Israelites to apply blood to doorposts.
On Shabbat Rosh Chodesh
When the parashah coincides with ShabbatRosh Chodesh
Rosh Chodesh or Rosh Hodesh ( he, ראש חודש; trans. ''Beginning of the Month''; lit. ''Head of the Month'') is the name for the first day of every month in the Hebrew calendar, marked by the birth of a new moon. It is considered a minor ...
(as it did in 2009), the haftarah is
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:Biblical
* (hyssop). * (right ear, thumb of right hand, and great toe of right foot);20–22
(riddance ritual). * (cedar wood, hyssop, and red stuff); (hyssop). * (priests' duty to assess); (priests' duties regarding skin diseases). * (purification from skin disease with living water); (people with skin disease). * (transporting away wickedness by wing).
* ("Purge me with hyssop"); (to teach); (plague on dwelling); (learning from the law).
Early nonrabbinic
*Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's de ...
''Allegorical Interpretation''
3:4:15
6:16
28:131–35.
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., ''The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge
Charles Duke Yonge (30 November 1812 – 30 November 1891) was an English historian, classicist and cricketer. He wrote numerous works of modern history, and translated several classical works. His younger brother was George Edward Yonge.
Biogr ...
, pages 51, 113, 169. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
*Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for '' The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly ...
, ''Antiquities of the Jews
''Antiquities of the Jews'' ( la, Antiquitates Iudaicae; el, Ἰουδαϊκὴ ἀρχαιολογία, ''Ioudaikē archaiologia'') is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by historian Flavius Josephus in the 13th year of the ...
'3:11:3–4.
Circa 93–94. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by
William Whiston
William Whiston (9 December 166722 August 1752) was an English theologian, historian, natural philosopher, and mathematician, a leading figure in the popularisation of the ideas of Isaac Newton. He is now probably best known for helping to inst ...
, pages 96–97. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987. .
*Hebrews
The terms ''Hebrews'' (Hebrew: / , Modern: ' / ', Tiberian: ' / '; ISO 259-3: ' / ') and ''Hebrew people'' are mostly considered synonymous with the Semitic-speaking Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still ...
Late 1st century. (scarlet wool and hyssop).
*John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Secon ...
(hyssop).
*Quran
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , ...
2:222 (menstruation); 4:43 (bathing); 24:30 (modesty) Arabia, circa 609–632.
Classical rabbinic
*Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
Pesachim 8:5
Kinnim 1:1–3:6
Negaim 1:1–14:13
Mikvaot 1:1–10:8; Mikvaot 1:1–10:8
Niddah 1:1–10:8
Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by
Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.
Life and career
Neusner was born in Hartfor ...
, pages 245, 259, 270–71, 327, 443–44, 690, 681, 706, 743, 751, 765, 801, 811, 835, 883–89, 981–1012, 1014, 1021, 1058–95, 1108–17. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. .
*Tosefta
The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
: Demai 2:7; Challah 2:7; Sotah 1:8; Menachot 7:16, 10:1; Chullin 10:14; Negaim 1:1–9:9; Niddah 1:1–9:19; Mikvaot 1:1–7:11; Zavim 1:1–5:12. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., ''The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 85, 339, 835; volume 2, pages 1404, 1438, 1450, 1709–44, 1779–835, 1887–99. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002. .
*Sifra
Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakhic midrash to the Book of Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim" ...
148:1–173:9. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. In, e.g., ''Sifra: An Analytical Translation''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 325–429. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. .
*Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
: Orlah 6a, 39a; Shabbat 10b, 73a; Pesachim 37a; Yoma 16b, 41b; Megillah 11b–12a; Yevamot 69a; Nazir 35a, 52a; Sotah 10a–b, 11b; Gittin 53b; Kiddushin 11a; Sanhedrin 22b; Niddah 1a–. Tiberias
Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's F ...
, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 12–14, 18, 21, 26, 30, 35–36, 39–40, 44. Brooklyn
Brooklyn () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Kings County, in the U.S. state of New York. Kings County is the most populous county in the State of New York, and the second-most densely populated county in the United States, be ...
: Mesorah Publications
ArtScroll is an imprint of translations, books and commentaries from an Orthodox Jewish perspective published by Mesorah Publications, Ltd., a publishing company based in Rahway, New Jersey. Rabbi Nosson Scherman is the general editor.
ArtScroll ...
, 2007–2017. And reprinted in, e.g., ''The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary''. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
* Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 13:1; 57:3; 59:3. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., ''Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai''. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 43, 258, 268. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006. .
*Leviticus Rabbah
Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayiqra Rabbah is a homiletic midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus (''Vayikrah'' in Hebrew). It is referred to by Nathan ben Jehiel (c. 1035–1106) in his ''Arukh'' as well as by Rashi (1040–1105) ...
16:1–19:6; 34:6. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus''. Translated by Harry Freedman
Harry Freedman (''Henryk Frydmann''), (April 5, 1922 – September 16, 2005) was a Canadians, Canadian composer, English hornist, and music educator of Polish birth. He wrote a significant amount of symphony, symphonic works, including the scores ...
and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 199–249, 431. London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
: Soncino Press
Soncino Press is a Jewish publishing company based in the United Kingdom that has published a variety of books of Jewish interest, most notably English translations and commentaries to the Talmud and Hebrew Bible. The Soncino Hebrew Bible and Tal ...
, 1939. .
*Babylonian Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
Shabbat 2b
Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
*Exodus Rabbah
Exodus Rabbah (Hebrew: שמות רבה, ''Shemot Rabbah'') is the midrash to Exodus.
Contents
Exodus Rabbah is almost purely aggadic in character.
It contains 52 sections. It consists of two sections with different styles, dubbed "Exodus Rabba ...
17:1. 10th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Exodus''. Translated by S. M. Lehrman, 3:211. London: Soncino Press, 1939. .
*Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
. ''Commentary''Leviticus 14–15.
Troyes
Troyes () is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in the Grand Est region of north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about south-east of Paris. Troyes is situated within the Champagne wine region and is near ...
, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. ''The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated''. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 159–90. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. .
*Rashbam
Samuel ben Meir (Troyes, c. 1085 – c. 1158), after his death known as "Rashbam", a Hebrew acronym for RAbbi SHmuel Ben Meir, was a leading French Tosafist and grandson of Shlomo Yitzhaki, "Rashi".
Biography
He was born in the vicinity of Tro ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., ''Rashbam’s Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation''. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 77–85. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001. .
*Judah Halevi
Judah Halevi (also Yehuda Halevi or ha-Levi; he, יהודה הלוי and Judah ben Shmuel Halevi ; ar, يهوذا اللاوي ''Yahuḏa al-Lāwī''; 1075 – 1141) was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, ...
. ''Kuzari
The ''Kuzari'', full title ''Book of Refutation and Proof on Behalf of the Despised Religion'' ( ar, كتاب الحجة والدليل في نصرة الدين الذليل: ''Kitâb al-ḥujja wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-dîn al-dhalîl''), also k ...
''. 3:53. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. ''Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel.'' Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 181. New York: Schocken, 1964. .
* Abraham ibn Ezra. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra)''. Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 103–20. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004. .
*Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
. ''The Guide for the Perplexed
''The Guide for the Perplexed'' ( ar, دلالة الحائرين, Dalālat al-ḥā'irīn, ; he, מורה נבוכים, Moreh Nevukhim) is a work of Jewish theology by Maimonides. It seeks to reconcile Aristotelianism with Rabbinical Jewish the ...
'', part 3, chapter 47. Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metr ...
, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. ''The Guide for the Perplexed''. Translated by Michael Friedländer
Michael Friedländer (29 April 1833 – 10 December 1910) was an Orientalist and principal of Jews' College, London. He is best known for his English translation of Maimonides' '' Guide to the Perplexed'', which was the most popular such transla ...
, pages 367–68, 370. New York: Dover Publications, 1956. .
*Hezekiah ben Manoah Hezekiah ben Manoah, or Hezekiah bar Manoah, was a French rabbi and Bible commentator of the 13th century. He is generally known by the title of his commentary, Chizkuni ( he, חזקוני).
In memory of his father, who lost his right hand through ...
. ''Hizkuni''. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. ''Chizkuni: Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 729–44. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013. .
*Nachmanides
Moses ben Nachman ( he, מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־נָחְמָן ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; el, Ναχμανίδης ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ra ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., ''Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah.'' Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 186–209. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974. .
*Zohar
The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...
part 3, pages 52b–56a. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., ''The Zohar: Pritzker Edition''. Translation and commentary by Daniel C. Matt
Daniel Chanan Matt is a scholar of Kabbalah and a professor at the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley. He received his Ph.D. from Brandeis University and taught at Stanford University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Matt is best known ...
, volume 7, pages 331–55. Stanford
Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a Private university, private research university in Stanford, California. The campus occupies , among the largest in the United States, and enrolls over 17,000 students. S ...
: Stanford University Press
Stanford University Press (SUP) is the publishing house of Stanford University. It is one of the oldest academic presses in the United States and the first university press to be established on the West Coast. It was among the presses officially ...
, 2012. .
*Bahya ben Asher
Bahya ben Asher ibn Halawa (, 1255–1340) was a rabbi and scholar of Judaism, best known as a commentator on the Hebrew Bible.
He is one of two scholars now referred to as Rabbeinu Behaye, the other being philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda.
Biog ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1653–74. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003. .
*Jacob ben Asher
Jacob ben Asher (c. 1269 - c. 1343), also known as Ba'al ha-Turim as well as Rabbi Yaakov ben Raash (Rabbeinu Asher), was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Ba'al ha-Turim ("Master of the Columns"), after ...
(Baal Ha-Turim). ''Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim''. Early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1139–61. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000. .
*Jacob ben Asher. ''Perush Al ha-Torah''. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. ''Tur on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 868–76. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005. .
* Isaac ben Moses Arama. ''Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac)''. Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. ''Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah''. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 588–91. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001. .
Modern
*Isaac Abravanel
Isaac ben Judah Abarbanel ( he, יצחק בן יהודה אברבנאל; 1437–1508), commonly referred to as Abarbanel (), also spelled Abravanel, Avravanel, or Abrabanel, was a Portuguese Jewish statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., ''Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus''. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 120–35. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. .
*Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno
Ovadia ben Jacob Sforno (Obadja Sforno, Hebrew: עובדיה ספורנו) was an Italian rabbi, Biblical commentator, philosopher and physician. A member of the Sforno family, he was born in Cesena about 1475 and died in Bologna in 1550.
Bio ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., ''Sforno: Commentary on the Torah''. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 550–61. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. .
*Moshe Alshich
Moshe Alshich he, משה אלשיך, also spelled Alshech, (1508–1593), known as the ''Alshich Hakadosh (the Holy)'', was a prominent rabbi, preacher, and biblical commentator in the latter part of the sixteenth century.
The Alshich was born ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Safed
Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elev ...
, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. ''Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 668–78. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000. .
*Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book '' Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influ ...
. ''Leviathan
Leviathan (; he, לִוְיָתָן, ) is a sea serpent noted in theology and mythology. It is referenced in several books of the Hebrew Bible, including Psalms, the Book of Job, the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Amos, and, according to some ...
'', 3:40. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. .
*Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Commentaries on the Torah''. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as ''Chanukat HaTorah''. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash''. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 222–26. Southfield, Michigan
Southfield is a city in Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,618.
As a northern suburb of Detroit, Southfield shares part of its southern border with Detroit. The city was original ...
: Targum Press
Menucha Publishers is an Orthodox Jewish
Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Writt ...
/Feldheim Publishers
Feldheim Publishers (or Feldheim) is an American Orthodox Jewish publisher of Torah books and literature. Its extensive catalog of titles includes books on Jewish law, Torah, Talmud, Jewish lifestyle, Shabbat and Jewish holidays, Jewish history, ...
, 2004. .
*Shabbethai Bass Shabbethai ben Joseph Bass (1641–1718) ( he, שבתי בן יוסף; also known by the family-name Strom), born at Kalisz, was the founder of Jewish bibliography, and author of the ''Siftei Chachamim'' supercommentary on Rashi's commentary on the ...
. ''Sifsei Chachamim''. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., ''Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros'', translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 249–97. Lakewood Township, New Jersey
Lakewood Township is the most populous township in Ocean County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. A rapidly growing community as of the 2020 U.S. census, the township had a total population of 135,158 representing an increase of 41,415 (+45.5 ...
: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
* Chaim ibn Attar. ''Ohr ha-Chaim''. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. ''Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1091–127. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999. .
*Yitzchak Magriso. ''Me'am Lo'ez
''Me'am Lo'ez'' ( he, מעם לועז), initiated by Rabbi Yaakov Culi in 1730, is a widely studied commentary on the Tanakh written in Judaeo-Spanish. It is perhaps the best known publication in that language.
History
''Me'Am Lo'ez'' marked on ...
''. Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. ''The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez''. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan
Aryeh Moshe Eliyahu Kaplan ( he, אריה משה אליהו קפלן; October 23, 1934 – January 28, 1983) was an American Orthodox rabbi, author, and translator, best known for his Living Torah edition of the Torah. He became well known as ...
, volume 11, pages 301–28. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989. .
*Nachman of Breslov
Nachman of Breslov ( he, רַבִּי נַחְמָן מִבְּרֶסְלֶב ''Rabbī'' ''Naḥmān mīBreslev''), also known as Reb Nachman of Bratslav, Reb Nachman Breslover ( yi, רבי נחמן ברעסלאווער ''Rebe Nakhmen Breslover'' ...
. ''Teachings''. Bratslav
Bratslav ( uk, Брацлав; pl, Bracław; yi, בראָצלעוו, ''Brotslev'', today also pronounced Breslev or '' Breslov'' as the name of a Hasidic group, which originated from this town) is an urban-type settlement in Ukraine, located i ...
, Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inva ...
, before 1811. In ''Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus''. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 341–45. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute Breslov Research Institute is a publisher of classic and contemporary Breslov texts in English. Established in 1979, BRI has produced the first English translation of all the works of Rebbe Nachman of Breslov (1772–1810) and selected works of Re ...
, 2011. .
*Emily Dickinson
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American poet. Little-known during her life, she has since been regarded as one of the most important figures in American poetry.
Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massac ...
. ''Poem 1733 (No man saw awe, nor to his house)''. 19th century. In ''The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson''. Edited by Thomas H. Johnson, page 703. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1960. .
* Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). ''Commentary on the Torah.'' Padua
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the ...
, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. ''Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 946–48. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012. .
*Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter ( he, יהודה אריה ליב אלתר, 15 April 1847 – 11 January 1905), also known by the title of his main work, the ''Sfas Emes'' (Ashkenazic Pronunciation) or ''Sefat Emet'' (Modern Hebrew), was a Hasidic rabbi ...
. ''Sefat Emet''. Góra Kalwaria
Góra Kalwaria (; "Calvary Mountain", yi, גער, ''Ger'') is a town on the Vistula River in the Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It is situated approximately southeast of Warsaw and has a population of around 12,109 (as of 201 ...
(Ger), Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...
, before 1906. Excerpted in ''The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet''. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 173–77. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. . Reprinted 2012. .
*Alexander Alan Steinbach. ''Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch'', pages 87–90. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
*E.V. Hulse, "The Nature of Biblical ‘Leprosy’ and the Use of Alternative Medical Terms in Modern Translations of the Bible." ''Palestine Exploration Quarterly
The Palestine Exploration Fund is a British society based in London. It was founded in 1865, shortly after the completion of the Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem, and is the oldest known organization in the world created specifically for the study ...
''. Volume 107 (1975): pages 87–105.
* Gordon J. Wenham. ''The Book of Leviticus'', pages 203–25. Grand Rapids, Michigan
Grand Rapids is a city and county seat of Kent County in the U.S. state of Michigan. At the 2020 census, the city had a population of 198,917 which ranks it as the second most-populated city in the state after Detroit. Grand Rapids is th ...
: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company is a religious publishing house based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1911 by Dutch American William B. Eerdmans (November 4, 1882 – April 1966) and still independently owned with William's daught ...
, 1979. .
*Helen Frenkley. "The Search for Roots—Israel's Biblical Landscape Reserve." In ''Biblical Archaeology Review
''Biblical Archaeology Review'' is a magazine appearing every three months and sometimes referred to as ''BAR'' that seeks to connect the academic study of archaeology to a broad general audience seeking to understand the world of the Bible, the ...
''. Volume 12 (number 5) (September/October 1986).
*Walter Jacob
Walter Jacob (born 1930) is an American Reform rabbi who was born in Augsburg, Germany, and immigrated to the United States in 1940.
He received his B.A. from Drury College (Springfield, Missouri, 1950) and ordination and an M.H.L. from Hebrew ...
"Jewish Reaction to Epidemics (AIDS)."
In ''Contemporary American Reform Responsa'', pages 136–38. New York:
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The Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), founded in 1889 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the principal organization of Reform rabbis in the United States and Canada. The CCAR is the largest and oldest rabbinical organization in the worl ...
, 1987. .
* Pinchas H. Peli. ''Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture'', pages 127–31. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. .
*David P. Wright. ''The Disposal of Impurity'', pages 75–113, 163–228. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987. .
*''Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation''. Edited by Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. .
* Harvey J. Fields. ''A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus'', pages 120–26. New York: UAHC Press, 1991. .
*Jacob Milgrom
Jacob Milgrom (February 1, 1923 – June 5, 2010) was a prominent American Jewish Bible scholar and Conservative rabbi. Milgrom's major contribution to biblical research was in the field of cult and worship. Although he accepted the documentar ...
"The Rationale for Biblical Impurity."
''Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society''. Volume 22 (1993): pages 107–11. *Victor Avigdor Hurowitz
"Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation."
''
AJS Review
''AJS Review'', published on behalf of the Association for Jewish Studies, publishes scholarly articles and book reviews covering the field of Jewish Studies. From biblical and rabbinic textual and historical studies to modern history, social ...
'', volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36.
* Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in ''The New Interpreter's Bible'', volume 1, pages 1086–106. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. .
*Judith S. Antonelli. "Menstruation." In ''In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah'', pages 276–87. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson
Jason Aronson was an American publisher of books in the field of psychotherapy. Topics dealt with in these books include child therapy, family therapy, couple therapy, object relations therapy, play therapy, depression, eating disorders, perso ...
, 1995. .
*Ellen Frankel Ellen Frankel (born 1951) was the Editor-in-Chief of the Jewish Publication Society (JPS) from 1991 until 2009, and also served as CEO of the JPS for 10 years. She retired in 2009 to pursue her own writing and scholarly projects, serving as JPS's f ...
. ''The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah'', pages 167–71. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996. .
* W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 277–84. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. .
*Binyomin Forst. ''The Laws of Niddah: A Comprehensive Exposition of Their Underlying Concepts and Applications'', volume 1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. .
*Judith Hauptman
Judith Rebecca Hauptman (born 1943) is an American feminist Talmudic scholar.
Biography
She grew up in the Brooklyn borough of New York City, New York, United States.
Hauptman received a degree in Talmud from the Seminary College of Jewish S ...
. “Niddah.” In ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'', pages 147–76. Boulder, Colorado
Boulder is a home rule city that is the county seat and most populous municipality of Boulder County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 108,250 at the 2020 United States census, making it the 12th most populous city in Colora ...
: Westview Press, 1997. .
*Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. ''Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities'', pages 189–93. Denver
Denver () is a consolidated city and county, the capital, and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Its population was 715,522 at the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010. It is the 19th-most populous city in the Unit ...
: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. .
*Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus 1–16'', volume 3, pages 827–1009. New York: Anchor Bible
The Anchor Bible Series, which consists of a commentary series, a Bible dictionary, and a reference library, is a scholarly and commercial co-venture which was begun in 1956, with the publication of individual volumes in the commentary series. Ove ...
, 1998. .
* Laura Geller. "Reclaiming the Torah of Our Lives." In ''The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein
Elyse Goldstein is a Canadian Reform rabbi. She is the first woman to be elected as president of the interdenominational Toronto Board of Rabbis and president of the Reform Rabbis of Greater Toronto.
Early life and education
Goldstein was bo ...
, pages 211–17. Woodstock, Vermont
Woodstock is the shire town (county seat) of Windsor County, Vermont, United States. As of the 2020 census, the town population was 3,005. It includes the villages of Woodstock, South Woodstock, Taftsville, and West Woodstock.
History
Cha ...
: Jewish Lights Publishing
Jewish Lights Publishing is a publishing company. Founded in 1990 by Stuart Matlins in Woodstock, Vermont, the company publishes works for children and adults that come from a Judaic perspective, yet provide wisdom to readers of any spiritual bac ...
, 2000. .
*Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In ''The HarperCollins Bible Commentary''. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 156–58. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. .
*Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 200–06. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. .
*Michael Fishbane
Michael A. Fishbane (born 1943) is an American scholar of Judaism and rabbinic literature. Formerly at Brandeis University, he is currently Professor Emeritus of Jewish Studies at the Divinity School, University of Chicago.
Fishbane (Ph.D., Brande ...
. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 174–78. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. .
*Robert Alter
Robert Bernard Alter (born 1935) is an American professor of Hebrew language, Hebrew and comparative literature at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught since 1967. He published Hebrew Bible (Alter), his translation of the ...
. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 599–610. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. .
*Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary'', pages 133–61. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004. .
*Rochelle Robins. "Haftarat Metzorah: II Kings 7:3–20" In ''The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 130–33. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004. .
*Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by Adele Berlin
Adele Berlin (born May 23, 1943 in Philadelphia) is an American biblical scholar and Hebraist. Before her retirement, she was Robert H. Smith Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of Maryland.
Berlin is best known for 1994 work ''Poet ...
and Marc Zvi Brettler
Marc Brettler (Marc Zvi Brettler) is an American biblical scholar, and the Bernice and Morton Lerner Professor in Judaic Studies at Duke University. He earned his B.A., M.A., and PhD from Brandeis University, where he previously served as Dora Gold ...
, pages 238–43. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. .
*Antony Cothey“Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.”
''
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
The ''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'' (JSOT) is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the field of Biblical studies. The editors-in-chief are David Shepherd (Trinity College Dublin) and Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer ( Örebro School of Theol ...
'', volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
*''Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading'' Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 180–83. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
*Cecilia Wassen. ''Women in the Damascus Document'', pages 50–51. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.
*Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 750–67. New York: Union for Reform Judaism
The Union for Reform Judaism (URJ), known as the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (UAHC) until 2003, founded in 1873 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the congregational arm of Reform Judaism in North America. The other two arms establishe ...
, 2006. .
*Calum Carmichael. ''Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives''. Baltimore
Baltimore ( , locally: or ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland, fourth most populous city in the Mid-Atlantic, and the 30th most populous city in the United States with a population of 585,708 in 2020. Baltimore was ...
: Johns Hopkins University Press
The Johns Hopkins University Press (also referred to as JHU Press or JHUP) is the publishing division of Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and is the oldest continuously running university press in the United States. The press publ ...
, 2006. .
*''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 657–78. New York: URJ Press, 2008. .
*Suzanne A. Brody. "Blood." In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 89. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. .
*James L. Kugel
James L. Kugel (Hebrew: Yaakov Kaduri, יעקב כדורי; born August 22, 1945) is Professor Emeritus in the Bible Department at Bar Ilan University in Israel and the Harry M. Starr Professor Emeritus of Classical and Modern Hebrew Literature at ...
. ''How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now'', page 303. New York: Free Press, 2007. .
*Christophe Nihan. ''From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus''. Coronet Books, 2007. .
*James W. Watts. ''Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. .
*Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 302–04. Grand Rapids, Michigan
Grand Rapids is a city and county seat of Kent County in the U.S. state of Michigan. At the 2020 census, the city had a population of 198,917 which ranks it as the second most-populated city in the state after Detroit. Grand Rapids is th ...
: Zondervan
Zondervan is an international Christian media and publishing company located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Zondervan is a founding member of the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association (ECPA). They are a part of HarperCollins Christian Publ ...
, 2009. .
*Reuven Hammer
Reuven Hammer (June 30, 1933 – August 12, 2019) was an American-Israeli Conservative rabbi, scholar of Jewish liturgy, author and lecturer who was born in New York. He was a founder of the "Masorti" (Conservative) movement in Israel and a presid ...
. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 165–68. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. .
* Timothy Keller. "The Seduction of Success." In ''Counterfeit Gods: The Empty Promises of Money, Sex, and Power, and the Only Hope that Matters''. Dutton Adult, 2009. . (Naaman).
*Jay Michaelson
Jay Michaelson (born May 5, 1971) is an American writer, professor, rabbi, and podcast host. He is a writer for ''New York'' magazine, ''Rolling Stone'', and other publications, having been the legal affairs columnist at ''The Daily Beast'' for eig ...
. “It’s the Purity, Stupid: Reading Leviticus in Context: Parashat Metzora (Leviticus 14:1–15:33).” In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow
Judith Plaskow (born March 14, 1947) is an American theologian, author, and activist known for being the first Jewish feminist theologian. After earning her doctorate at Yale University, she taught at Manhattan College for thirty-two years before ...
, pages 145–50. New York: New York University Press
New York University Press (or NYU Press) is a university press that is part of New York University.
History
NYU Press was founded in 1916 by the then chancellor of NYU, Elmer Ellsworth Brown.
Directors
* Arthur Huntington Nason, 1916–1 ...
, 2009. .
*Varda Polak-Sahm. ''The House of Secrets: The Hidden World of the Mikveh''. Beacon Press, 2009. ."Holy Water: A New Book Reveals the Secrets of the Mikveh."
In '' Tablet Magazine''. (August 31, 2009). *Mark Leuchter
“The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.”
''
Vetus Testamentum
''Vetus Testamentum'' is a quarterly academic journal covering various aspects of the Old Testament. It is published by Brill Publishers
Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international ...
'', volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
*Zvi Sobolofsky
Zvi Sobolofsky is a rosh yeshiva at Yeshiva University in New York City.
Rabbi Sobolofsky studied at Yeshivat Kerem B'Yavneh and Yeshiva University; graduating in 1987, he was named valedictorian of the Mazer Yeshiva Program. He then attended t ...
. ''The Laws and Concepts of Niddah''. Koren Publishers Jerusalem, 2010. .
*Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus." In ''The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible''. Edited by Michael D. Coogan
Michael D. Coogan is lecturer on Hebrew Bible/Old Testament at Harvard Divinity School, Director of Publications for the Harvard Semitic Museum, editor-in-chief of Oxford Biblical Studies Online, and professor emeritus of religious studies at Stone ...
, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins Pheme Perkins (born 1945 in Louisville, Kentucky) is a Professor of Theology at Boston College, where she has been teaching since 1972. She is a nationally recognized expert on the Greco-Roman cultural setting of early Christianity, as well as the P ...
, pages 161–65. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010. .
*Jonathan Haidt
Jonathan David Haidt (; born October 19, 1963) is an American social psychologist and author. He is the Thomas Cooley Professor of Ethical Leadership at New York University Stern School of Business. His main areas of study are the psychology of ...
. ''The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion'', page 148. New York: Pantheon, 2012. . (evolutionarily justified disgust as motivation for casting out lepers).
*Shmuel Herzfeld
Shmuel Herzfeld (born October 9, 1974) is an American Modern Orthodox rabbi. He previously served as the Senior Rabbi of Ohev Sholom - The National Synagogue in Washington, D.C. He is a teacher, lecturer, activist, and author.
Early life and ...
. "He Lived To Teach." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 160–63. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House
Gefen Publishing House (הוצאת גפן) is an English language publishing firm located in Jerusalem, which also has a department in New York City. History
Gefen was founded in 1981 by Murray and Hana Greenfield.
Its CEO is Ilan Greenfield ...
, 2012. .
*Tracy M. Lemos“Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 37 (number 3) (March 2013): pages 265–94.
*Peretz Rivkin, Yehuda Weingarten, Zusha Greisman. ''Parshath Nega'im with W'Tihar HaKohen Commentary (Tzaraath)'', volume 1, Hebrew Edition. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014. .
*Jonathan Sacks
Jonathan Henry Sacks, Baron Sacks ( he, יונתן הנרי זקס, translit=Yona'tan Henry Zaks; 8 March 19487 November 2020) was an English Orthodox rabbi, philosopher, theologian, and author. Sacks served as the Chief Rabbi of the United ...
. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness'', pages 199–238. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015. .
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 147–51. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. .
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 177–82. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. .
*Shai Held Shai Held (born July 2, 1971) is a rosh yeshiva (Rabbinic dean) and Chair in Jewish Thought at Mechon Hadar.
He founded Mechon Hadar in 2006 with Rabbis Elie Kaunfer and Ethan Tucker.
Education
Held attended Ramaz High School and studied a ...
. ''The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy'', pages 42–51. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. .
*Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. ''The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary'', pages 90–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. .
*Bhadra Sharma and Jeffrey Gettleman
Jeffrey A. Gettleman (born 1971) is an American Pulitzer prize-winning journalist. Since 2018, he has been the South Asia bureau chief of The New York Times based in New Delhi. From 2006-July 2017, he was East Africa bureau chief for ''The Times ...
“In Rural Nepal, Menstruation Taboo Claims Another Victim.”
''
The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
''. January 11, 2018, page A4.
External links
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California