For the digestive system

• Upper digestive tract: antacids, reflux suppressants, antiflatulents, antidopaminergics, central nervous system include: psychedelics, hypnotics, anaesthetics, antipsychotics, eugeroics, antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, lithium salts, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics, Anticonvulsants/antiepileptics, anxiolytics, barbiturates, movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease) drugs, stimulants (including amphetamines), benzodiazepines, cyclopyrrolones, dopamine antagonists, antihistamines, cholinergics, anticholinergics, emetics, cannabinoids, and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists.

  For pain

  See also: Analgesic

  The main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and local anesthetics.

  For consciousness (anesthetic drugs)

  See also: Anesthetic

  Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates.

  For musculo-skeletal disorders

  The main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors), muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases.

  For the eye

  • General: adrenergic neurone blocker, astringent.
  • Diagnostic: topical anesthetics, sympathomimetics, parasympatholytics, mydriatics, cycloplegics.
  • Antibacterial: antibiotics, topical antibiotics, sulfa drugs, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones.
  • Antiviral drugs.
  • Anti-fungal: imidazoles, polyenes.
  • Anti-inflammatory: NSAIDs, corticosteroids.
  • Anti-allergy: mast cell inhibitors.
  • Anti-glaucoma: adrenergic agonists, beta-blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors/hyperosmotics, cholinergics, miotics, parasympathomimetics, prostaglandin agonists/prostaglandin inhibitors, nitroglycerin.

  For the ear, nose and oropharynx

  Antibiotics, sympathomimetics, antihistamines, anticholinergics, NSAIDs, corticosteroids, antiseptics, local anesthetics, antifungals, cerumenolytic.

  For the respiratory systemThe main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and local anesthetics.

  For consciousness (anesthetic drugs)

  See also: Anesthetic

  Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates.

  For

  For consciousness (anesthetic drugs)

  Some anesthetics include benzodiazepines and barbiturates.

  For musculo-skeletal disordersThe main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are: NSAIDs (including COX-2 selective inhibitors), muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases.

  For the eye

  • General: adrenergic neurone blocker, Antibiotics, sympathomimetics, antihistamines, anticholinergics, NSAIDs, corticosteroids, antiseptics, local anesthetics, antifungals, cerumenolytic.

    For the respiratory system

    Bronchodilators, antitussives, mucolytics, decongestants, inhaled and systemic corticosteroids, beta2-adrenergic agonists, anticholinergics, mast cell stabilizers, leukotriene antagonists.

    For endocrine problems

    Androgens, antiandrogens, estrogens, gonadotropin, corticosteroids, human growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetics (sulfonylureas, biguanides/metformin, thiazolidinediones, insulin), thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosphonate, vasopressin analogues.

    For the reproductive system or urinary system

    Bronchodilators, antitussives, mucolytics, decongestants, inhaled and systemic corticosteroids, beta2-adrenergic agonists, anticholinergics, mast cell stabilizers, leukotriene antagonists.

    For endocrine problems

    Androgens, antiandrogens, estrogens, gonadotropin, corticosteroids, human growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetics (sulfonylureas, biguanides/metformin, thiazolidinediones, insulin), thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosphonate, vasopressin analogues.

    For the reproductive system or urinary system

    • Hormon

      NSAIDs, anticholinergics, haemostatic drugs, antifibrinolytics, Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT), bone regulators, beta-receptor agonists, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, LHRH, gamolenic acid, gonadotropin release inhibitor, progestogen, dopamine agonists, oestrogen, prostaglandins, gonadorelin, clomiphene, tamoxifen, diethylstilbestrol.

      For the skin

      Emollients, anti-pruritics, antifungals, antiseptics, scabicides, pediculicides, tar products, vitamin A deriv

      Emollients, anti-pruritics, antifungals, antiseptics, scabicides, pediculicides, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogues, keratolytics, abrasives, systemic antibiotics, topical antibiotics, hormones, desloughing agents, exudate absorbents, fibrinolytics, proteolytics, sunscreens, antiperspirants, corticosteroids, immune modulators.

      For infections and infestations

      Vaccines, immunoglobulins, immunosuppressants, interferons, monoclonal antibodies.

      For allergic disordersAnti-allergics, antihistamines, NSAIDs, corticosteroids.

      For nutrition

      Tonics, electrolytes and mineral preparations (including iron preparations and magnesium preparations), parenteral nutritions, vitamins, anti-obesity drugs, anabolic drugs, haematopoietic drugs, food product drugs.

      For neoplastic disorders

      Contrast media.

      For euthanasia

      A euthanaticum is used for euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in many countries, and consequently, medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries.

      Administration

      Main article: enteral (via the human gastrointestinal tract), injection, and other (dermal, nasal, ophthalmic, otologic, and urogenital).^[9]

      Oral administration, the most common form of enteral administration, can be performed in various dosage forms including pills, tablets, or capsules, and other routes likewise have various forms.

      The drug may contain a single or multiple active ingredients.

      They can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously. Frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora.

      Drug discovery

      Main article: Drug discovery

      In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered.

      Historically, drugs were discovered through identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later Oral administration, the most common form of enteral administration, can be performed in various dosage forms including pills, tablets, or capsules, and other routes likewise have various forms.

      The drug may contain a single or multiple active ingredients.

      They can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously. Frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora.

      In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered.

      Historically, drugs were discovered through identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules, natural products or extracts were

      Historically, drugs were discovered through identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules, natural products or extracts were screened in intact cells or whole organisms to identify substances that have a desirable therapeutic effect in a process known as classical pharmacology. Since sequencing of the human genome which allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compounds libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease-modifying in a process known as reverse pharmacology. Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy. Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level, and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design) drug candidates.

      Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry and optimization of those hits to increase the affinity, selectivity (to reduce the potential of side effects), efficacy/potency, metabolic stability (to increase the half-life), and oral bioavailability. Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials. One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design.

      Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with low rate of new therapeutic discovery.^[10] In 2010, the research and development cost of each new molecular entity (NME) was approximately US$1.8 billion.^[11] Drug discovery is done by pharmaceutical companies, sometimes with research assistance from universities. The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. The drug requires very expensive Phase I, II and III clinical trials, and most of them fail. Small companies have a critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials.

      Drug development is the process of bringing a new drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery. It includes pre-clinical research (microorganisms/animals) and clinical trials (on humans) and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval to market the drug.^[12][13]

      Regulation

      Main article:

      The regulation of drugs varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the national level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions, they are regulated at the state level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health and safety of the population. Regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed. There is usually some degree of restriction of the availability of certain therapeutic goods depending on their risk to consumers.

      Depending upon the jurisdiction, drugs may be divided into over-the-counter drugs (OTC) which may be available without special restrictions, and prescription drugs, which must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner in accordance with Depending upon the jurisdiction, drugs may be divided into over-the-counter drugs (OTC) which may be available without special restrictions, and prescription drugs, which must be prescribed by a licensed medical practitioner in accordance with medical guidelines due to the risk of adverse effects and contraindications. The precise distinction between OTC and prescription depends on the legal jurisdiction. A third category, "behind-the-counter" drugs, is implemented in some jurisdictions. These do not require a prescription, but must be kept in the dispensary, not visible to the public, and only be sold by a pharmacist or pharmacy technician. Doctors may also prescribe prescription drugs for off-label use – purposes which the drugs were not originally approved for by the regulatory agency. The Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals helps guide the referral process between pharmacists and doctors.

      The International Narcotics Control Board of the United Nations imposes a world law of prohibition of certain drugs. They publish a lengthy list of chemicals and plants whose trade and consumption (where applicable) is forbidden. OTC drugs are sold without restriction as they are considered safe enough that most people will not hurt themselves accidentally by taking it as instructed.^[14] Many countries, such as the United Kingdom have a third category of "pharmacy medicines", which can only be sold in registered pharmacies by or under the supervision of a pharmacist.

      Medical errors include overprescription and polypharmacy, misprescription, contraindication and lack of detail in dosage and administrations instructions. In 2000 the definition of a prescription error was studied using a Delphi method conference; the conference was motivated by ambiguity in the what a prescription error and a need to use a uniform definition in studies.^[15]

      In many jurisdictions drug prices are regulated.

      United Kingdom

      In the UK, the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme is intended to ensure that the National Health Service is able to purchase drugs at reasonable prices. The prices are negotiated between the Department of Health, acting with the authority of Northern Ireland and the UK Government, and the representatives of the Pharmaceutical industry brands, the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI). For 2017 this payment percentage set by the PPRS will be 4,75%.^[16]

      Canada

      In Canada, the Patented Medicine Prices Review Board examines drug pricing and determines if a price is excessive or not. In these circumstances, drug manufacturers must submit a proposed price to the appropriate regulatory agency. Furthermo

      In the UK, the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme is intended to ensure that the National Health Service is able to purchase drugs at reasonable prices. The prices are negotiated between the Department of Health, acting with the authority of Northern Ireland and the UK Government, and the representatives of the Pharmaceutical industry brands, the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI). For 2017 this payment percentage set by the PPRS will be 4,75%.^[16]

      Canada

      In Canada, the Patent

      In Canada, the Patented Medicine Prices Review Board examines drug pricing and determines if a price is excessive or not. In these circumstances, drug manufacturers must submit a proposed price to the appropriate regulatory agency. Furthermore, "the International Therapeutic Class Comparison Test is responsible for comparing the National Average Transaction Price of the patented drug product under review"^[17] different countries that the prices are being compared to are the following: France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States^[17]

      Brazil

      In Brazil, the prices are regulated through a legislation under the name of Medicamento Genérico (generic drugs) since 1999.^[18]

      India

      In India, drug prices are regulated by the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority.

      United States