The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of
Louisiana") was the acquisition of the
Louisiana

Louisiana territory (828,000
square miles or 2.14 million km²) by the
United States

United States from France in
1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000) and a
cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000) for a
total of sixty-eight million francs ($15 million, equivalent to
$300 million in 2016). The
Louisiana

Louisiana territory included land from
fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory
contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas,
and Nebraska; the portion of
Minnesota

Minnesota west of the Mississippi River;
a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the
northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the
area of Montana, Wyoming, and
Colorado

Colorado east of the Continental Divide;
Louisiana

Louisiana west of the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small
portions of land within the present
Canadian provinces

Canadian provinces of
Alberta

Alberta and
Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants,
of whom half were African slaves.[1]
The Kingdom of France controlled the
Louisiana

Louisiana territory from 1699
until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, then the First
Consul of the French Republic, hoping to re-establish an empire in
North America, regained ownership of Louisiana. However, France's
failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the
prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon
to sell
Louisiana

Louisiana to the
United States

United States to fund his military. The
Americans originally sought to purchase only the port city of New
Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands, but quickly accepted the
bargain. The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third
President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Before the purchase
was finalized, the decision faced
Federalist Party

Federalist Party opposition; they
argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory.
Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit
provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his
constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient.
Contents
1 Background
2 Negotiation
3 Domestic opposition and constitutionality
4 Treaty signing
5 Formal transfers and initial organization
6 Boundaries
7 Slavery
8 Asserting U.S. possession
9 Financing
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Footnotes
11.2 Works cited
12 Further reading
13 External links
Background
1804 map of "Louisiana", edged on the west by the Rocky Mountains
Throughout the second half of the 18th century,
Louisiana

Louisiana was a pawn
on the chessboard of European politics.[2] It was controlled by the
French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and
other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret
Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven
Years' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the
Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.[3]
Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans
controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans.
The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi
to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few
American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that
the territory would be acquired "piece by piece." The risk of another
power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound
reconsideration" of this policy necessary.[2]
New Orleans

New Orleans was already
important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the
United States

United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney's Treaty,
signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right
of deposit" in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store
goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such
as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and
cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the
entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the
western territories.[3]
In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New
Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don
Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and
restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain
had ceded the
Louisiana

Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon's
secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso.[4] The territory nominally
remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on
30 November 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the
territory to the
United States

United States on 20 December 1803.[5] A further
ceremony was held in St. Louis, Upper
Louisiana

Louisiana regarding the New
Orleans formalities. The 9–10 March 1804 event is remembered as
Three Flags Day.[6][7]
James Monroe

James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to
Paris

Paris to
negotiate the purchase of
New Orleans

New Orleans in January 1803. Their
instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of
New Orleans

New Orleans and
its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition
which would follow.[8]
The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S.
history. Stretching from the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains,
the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803,
Louisiana

Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although
Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish
didn't want the Americans to settle in their territory.[9]
Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and
unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power
to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen
states. In hindsight, the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase could be considered one
of his greatest contributions to the United States.[10] On April 18,
1802, Jefferson penned a letter to
United States

United States Ambassador to France
Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this
supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous
course. The letter began:
The cession of
Louisiana

Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works
most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has
written to you fully. Yet I cannot forbear recurring to it personally,
so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses
all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in
our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is
the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could
have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of
interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural
friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of
difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes
ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is
our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the
produce of three-eighths of our territory must pass to market, and
from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole
produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing
herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain
might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions,
her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there,
so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it
would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise
which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of
more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The
impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her
character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...
Jefferson's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage
about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans." Not only
did he say that day would be a low point in France's history, for it
would seal America's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but
he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding
program.[11]
Negotiation
While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800
went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread
nationwide when, in 1801,
Napoleon

Napoleon sent a military force to secure New
Orleans. Southerners feared that
Napoleon

Napoleon would free all the slaves in
Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere.[12] Though
Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against
Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting
them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the
United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction.[12]
In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back
Saint-Domingue

Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which was then under control of
Toussaint Louverture

Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.
Jefferson sent Livingston to
Paris

Paris in 1801[13] after discovering the
transfer of
Louisiana

Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of
San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.
In January 1802, France sent General
Charles Leclerc
.jpg)
Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue
(present-day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished
by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to
reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the
island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions
of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun
to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution,
France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of
the lives and freedom of the slaves.
Napoleon

Napoleon wanted its revenues and
productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and
its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson
declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and
other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get
through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.[14]
In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from
Saint-Domingue

Saint-Domingue (more than two-thirds of its troops died there) and
gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere.[15] In 1804 Haiti
declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home,
Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the
second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against
it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti,
encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for
Haiti

Haiti to
recover after ten years of wars.[16]
In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to
help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was
living in the
United States

United States at the time and had close ties to
Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged
in back-channel diplomacy with
Napoleon

Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a
visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana
Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United
States and
Napoleon

Napoleon over North America.[17]
Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing
Louisiana

Louisiana from France, as
that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson
had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional
authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would
erode states' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the
other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be
in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong
French presence there.[citation needed]
Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on
Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America. Part
of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that
was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting
instructions to the two.[citation needed] Desperate to avoid possible
war with France, Jefferson sent
James Monroe

James Monroe to
Paris

Paris in 1803 to
negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to
London

London to negotiate
an alliance if the talks in
Paris

Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until
late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer
Louisiana

Louisiana to France,
which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain's refusal to
cede Florida to France meant that
Louisiana

Louisiana would be indefensible.
Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic
mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of
seriousness.
Napoleon

Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty
of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise,
Louisiana

Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United
States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK
seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803,
Napoleon

Napoleon began preparing to
invade the UK.
As
Napoleon

Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of
Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France's
New World

New World empire.
Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean,
Louisiana

Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the
transfer of
Louisiana

Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was
imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to
sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon
decided to sell the entire territory.[18]
Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April
10, 1803,
Napoleon

Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de
Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana
Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before
Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana
for $15 million,[19] (equivalent to about $300 million in 2016
dollars,[20]) which averages to less than three cents per acre
(7 ¢/ha).[21][22]
The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million
for
New Orleans

New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly
larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized
Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was
certain that the
United States

United States would accept the offer.[23]
The Americans thought that
Napoleon

Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any
time, preventing the
United States

United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they
agreed and signed the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On
July 4, 1803, the treaty reached Washington, D.C.. The Louisiana
Territory was vast, stretching from the
Gulf of Mexico

Gulf of Mexico in the south to
Rupert's Land

Rupert's Land in the north, and from the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River in the east
to the
Rocky Mountains

Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would
double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents
per acre.
Domestic opposition and constitutionality
The original treaty of the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase
Henry Adams
.png/440px-William_Notman_-_Henry_Brooks_Adams,_1885_(transparent).png)
Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted
hypocritically with the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a
strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched
the intent of that document to justify his purchase.[24] This argument
goes as follows:
The American purchase of the
Louisiana

Louisiana territory was not accomplished
without domestic opposition. Jefferson's philosophical consistency was
in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution.
Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were
doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander
Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring
close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were
concerned that the
United States

United States had paid a large sum of money just to
declare war on Spain.[citation needed]
Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase's
constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives
opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the
opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the
purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59–57. The Federalists even
tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available
records proved otherwise.[25]
The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard
states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose
political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of
the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that
an increase in the number of slave-holding states created out of the
new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as
well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering
of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate
northern confederacy.
Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the
French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the
treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these
"foreigners", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become
citizens.[26]
Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had
previously promised in a note not to alienate
Louisiana

Louisiana to a third
party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San
Ildefonso by having the King of
Etruria

Etruria recognized by all European
powers. The French government replied that these objections were
baseless since the promise not to alienate
Louisiana

Louisiana was not in the
treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and
the Spanish government had ordered
Louisiana

Louisiana to be transferred in
October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not
recognized the King of
Etruria

Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.[27]
Transfer of
Louisiana

Louisiana by Ford P. Kaiser for the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase
Exposition (1904)
Henry Adams
.png/440px-William_Notman_-_Henry_Brooks_Adams,_1885_(transparent).png)
Henry Adams claimed "The sale of
Louisiana

Louisiana to the
United States

United States was
trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not
constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French
Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at
all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless."[28]
The sale of course was not "worthless"—the U.S. actually did take
possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the
U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of
territories which may suit their interests." Spain turned the
territory over to France in a ceremony in
New Orleans

New Orleans on November 30,
a month before France turned it over to American officials.[29]
Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson's
alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in
two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise
known as a treaty. The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty.
The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to
negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson
did.[30]
Jefferson's Secretary of State,
James Madison

James Madison (the "Father of the
Constitution"), assured Jefferson that the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase was well
within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury
Secretary
Albert Gallatin

Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate
treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way
extending the country's territory by treaty could not be a
presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the
Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict
constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the
bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and
was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction" if the Congress approved
the treaty.[31]
The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal
alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution
specifies.[32][33]
The opposition of
New England

New England Federalists to the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase
was primarily economic self-interest, not any legitimate concern over
constitutionality or whether France indeed owned
Louisiana

Louisiana or was
required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the
territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers
gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of
New England

New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in
upstate New York and
New England

New England and were hoping to sell these lands
to farmers, who might go west instead, if the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase went
through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being
formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political
power of
New England

New England Federalists.[32][34]
When Spain later objected to the
United States

United States purchasing Louisiana
from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain
about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that
America would have to treat with France for the territory.[35]
Treaty signing
Issue of 1953, commemorating the 150th Anniversary of signing
The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on 30 April by Robert
Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson
announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the
signing of the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made
this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest
work of our whole lives... From this day the
United States

United States take their
place among the powers of the first rank."[36]
The
United States

United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the
treaty with a vote of twenty-four to seven on October 20. The Senators
who voted against the treaty were:
Simeon Olcott

Simeon Olcott and
William Plumer

William Plumer of
New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James
Hillhouse and
Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and
Timothy Pickering

Timothy Pickering of
Massachusetts.
On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized
Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a
temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31,
Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to
continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the
President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also
set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the
most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[37]
A timeline of legislation can be found at the Library of Congress:
American Memory:The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Legislative
Timeline--1803-1804.[38]
Formal transfers and initial organization
Flag raising in the Place d'Armes of New Orleans, marking the transfer
of sovereignty over French
Louisiana

Louisiana to the United States, December
20, 1803, as depicted by Thure de Thulstrup
France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on
December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag-raising ceremony in the
Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on
November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the
colonial lands and their administration to France.
On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags
Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper
Louisiana

Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from
France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804,
Upper
Louisiana

Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under
Commandant Amos Stoddard.[citation needed]
Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into
the
Territory of Orleans

Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of
Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under
control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory.
The following year, the
District of Louisiana

District of Louisiana was renamed the
Territory of Louisiana, aka
Louisiana

Louisiana Territory
(1805–1812).[citation needed]
New Orleans

New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory,
and
St. Louis

St. Louis was the capital of the
Louisiana

Louisiana Territory.[citation
needed]
Boundaries
A dispute soon arose between Spain and the
United States

United States regarding the
extent of Louisiana. The territory's boundaries had not been defined
in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to
Spain, nor in the 1801
Third Treaty of San Ildefonso
.png/200px-Gros_-_First_Consul_Bonaparte_(Detail).png)
Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to
France, nor the 1803
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the
United States.[39]
The
United States

United States claimed
Louisiana

Louisiana included the entire western
portion of the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the
Rocky Mountains

Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the
Rio Grande

Rio Grande and
West Florida.[40] Spain insisted that
Louisiana

Louisiana comprised no more than
the western bank of the
Mississippi River

Mississippi River and the cities of New
Orleans and St. Louis.[41] The dispute was ultimately resolved by the
Adams–Onís Treaty

Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, with the
United States

United States gaining most of
what it had claimed in the west.[citation needed]
The Purchase was one of several territorial additions to the U.S.
The relatively narrow
Louisiana

Louisiana of
New Spain

New Spain had been a special
province under the jurisdiction of the
Captaincy General of Cuba
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Spain_(1785-1873_and_1875-1931).svg.png)
Captaincy General of Cuba while
the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the
Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas.
Louisiana

Louisiana had never
been considered one of New Spain's internal provinces.[42]
If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on
its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into
the equally ill-defined British possession—
Rupert's Land

Rupert's Land of British
North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended
just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the
49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds)
was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the
Red River Basin

Red River Basin south
of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818.[citation
needed]
The eastern boundary of the
Louisiana

Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi
River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the
Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the
31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the
Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony
remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the
Mobile Act, which recognized
West Florida
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Spain_(1785-1873_and_1875-1931).svg.png)
West Florida as part of the United
States. The
Adams–Onís Treaty

Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue
upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern
boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido
is the western boundary of Florida.[citation needed]
Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the
Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three
missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from
the Mississippi River. The
Lewis and Clark Expedition

Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled
up the
Missouri

Missouri River; the
Red River Expedition (1806)

Red River Expedition (1806) explored the
Red River basin; the
Pike Expedition

Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the
Missouri, but turned south to explore the
Arkansas

Arkansas River watershed.
The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries
during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set
the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the
Gulf of Mexico

Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north
to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the
Arkansas

Arkansas River, up the
Arkansas

Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to
the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.
Slavery
See also: History of slavery in Louisiana, History of slavery in
Missouri, and Slavery in the United States
Governing the
Louisiana

Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring
it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican
descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large
population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent
arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This
was particularly true in the area of the present-day state of
Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of
color. Both present-day
Arkansas

Arkansas and
Missouri

Missouri already had some
slaveholders in the early 19th century.
During this period, south
Louisiana

Louisiana received an influx of
French-speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their
slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in
Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that
acquisition of the new territory might inspire American-held slaves to
follow the example of those in
Saint-Domingue

Saint-Domingue and revolt. They wanted
the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly
acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves
there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce
the threat of future slave rebellions.[43]
The
Louisiana

Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for
administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to
those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the
preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited
slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed
African-Native American descent were still being held in
St. Louis

St. Louis in
Upper
Louisiana

Louisiana when the U.S. took over).[44] In a freedom suit that
went from
Missouri

Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native
Americans was finally ended in 1836.[44] The institutionalization of
slavery under U.S. law in the
Louisiana

Louisiana Territory contributed to the
American Civil War

American Civil War a half century later.[43] As states organized
within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a
matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery
extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new
states being admitted as "slave states."
The
Missouri

Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.[citation
needed]
Asserting U.S. possession
Plan of Fort Madison, built in 1808 to establish U.S. control over the
northern part of the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase, drawn 1810
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish
control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri
rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada
and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the
former Spanish facility at
Fort Bellefontaine

Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post
near
St. Louis

St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox.[45] In 1808
two military forts with trading factories were built,
Fort Osage

Fort Osage along
the
Missouri

Missouri River in western present-day
Missouri

Missouri and Fort Madison
along the Upper
Mississippi River

Mississippi River in eastern present-day Iowa.[46]
With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort
Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for
that purpose until 1826.
During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S.
forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and
Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war,
including
Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the
region was confirmed in the
Treaty of Ghent
.jpg/440px-Signing_of_Treaty_of_Ghent_(1812).jpg)
Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or
expanded forts along the Mississippi and
Missouri

Missouri rivers, including
adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816)
and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois,
Fort Crawford

Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie
du Chien Wisconsin,
Fort Snelling

Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort
Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.[46]
Financing
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and
issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier
that year, Francis Baring and Company of
London

London had become the U.S.
government's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored
position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction.
Francis Baring's son Alexander was in
Paris

Paris at the time and helped in
the negotiations.[47] Another Baring advantage was a close
relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking
houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.
Because
Napoleon

Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible,
the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to
France.[47]
Napoleon

Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of
England, which never took place.[48]
See also
Louisiana

Louisiana portal
History portal
Alaska Purchase
Florida Purchase
Corps of Discovery
Franco-American alliance
List of French possessions and colonies
New France
Historic regions of the United States
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Historic State Park
Territorial evolution of the United States
Territories of the
United States

United States on stamps
References
Footnotes
^ "Congressional series of
United States

United States public documents". U.S.
Government Printing Office. January 1, 1864 – via Google
Books.
^ a b Herring (2008), p. 99
^ a b Meinig (1995)[page needed]
^ Warren, Rebecca (1976). "The Role of American Diplomacy in the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase". pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu.
^ "
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase History, Facts, & Map". Encyclopedia
Britannica. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
^ "
Three Flags Day - Naked History". Naked History. 2017-03-15.
Retrieved 2017-11-21.
^ "Reliving Lewis and Clark:
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Ceremony".
news.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
^ "8 Things You May Not Know About the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase".
HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
^ "
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com".
HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
^ Thompson (2006), pp. 4–48
^ Cerami (2003), pp. 57-58
^ a b Herring (2008), p. 100
^ "Milestones: 1801–1829 - Office of the Historian".
history.state.gov. Retrieved 2017-02-19.
^ Matthewson (1995), p. 221
^ Matthewson (1995), p. 209
^ Matthewson (1996), pp. 22–23
^ Duke (1977), pp. 77–83
^ Herring (2008), p. 101
^ Kuepper, Justin (October 8, 2012). "3 Of The Most Lucrative Land
Deals In History".
^ Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.S. GDP
Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 5, 2018. United States
Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth
series.
^ Burgan (2002), p. 36.
^ "Primary Documents of American History:
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase". Web
Guides. Library of Congress. March 29, 2011. Retrieved March 26,
2014.
^ Malone, Roeder & Lang (1991), p. 30
^ Rodriguez (2002), pp. 139–40
^ Fleming (2003), pp. 149ff
^ Nugent (2009), pp. 65–68.
^ Gayarre (1867), p. 544.
^ Adams (2011), pp. 56–57
^ Nugent (2009), pp. 66–67
^ Lawson & Seidman (2008), pp. 20–22
^ Banning (1995), pp. 7–9, 178, 326–7, 330–3, 345–6,
360–1, 371, 384.
^ a b Ketcham (2003), pp. 420–2.
^ The fledgling
United States

United States did not have $15 million in its
treasury; it borrowed the sum from Great Britain, at an annual
interest rate of six percent. [1]
^ Lewis (2003), p. 79
^ Peterson, Merrill D. (1974). "James Madison: A Biography in his Own
Words". Newsweek. pp. 237–46. [full citation needed]
^ "America's
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase: Noble Bargain, Difficult Journey".
Lpb.org. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
^ "
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Thomas Jefferson's Monticello".
www.monticello.org. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
^ "The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline". The Louisiana
Purchase Legislative Timeline. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2
February 2018.
^ Schoultz (1998), pp. 15–16
^ Haynes (2010), pp. 115–16
^ Hämäläinen (2008), p. 183
^ Weber (1994), pp. 223, 293
^ a b Herring (2008), p. 104
^ a b Foley, William E. (October 1984). "Slave Freedom Suits before
Dred Scott: The Case of Marie Jean Scypion's Descendants". Missouri
Historical Review. 79 (1): 1. Retrieved February 18, 2011 – via The
State Historical Society of Missouri. [permanent dead link]
^ Luttig (1920).[page needed]
^ a b Prucha (1969).[page needed]
^ a b Ziegler (1988).[page needed]
^ Fleming (2003), pp. 129ff.
Works cited
Adams, Henry (2011) [1889]. History of the
United States

United States of America
(1801–1817). vol.2: During the First Administration of Thomas
Jefferson. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108033039.
Banning, Lance (1995). The Sacred Fire of Liberty:
James Madison

James Madison and
the Founding of the Federal Republic. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press.
Burgan, Michael (2002). The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase. Capstone.
ISBN 9780756502102.
Cerami, Charles A. (2003). Jefferson's Great Gamble. Sourcebooks.
ISBN 9781402234354.
Duke, Marc (1977). The du Ponts: Portrait of a Dynasty. Saturday
Review Press. ISBN 0-8415-0429-6.
Fleming, Thomas J. (2003). The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-26738-6.
Gayarre, Charles (1867). History of Louisiana.
Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). The Comanche Empire. Yale University
Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12654-9.
Haynes, Robert V. (2010). The Mississippi Territory and the Southwest
Frontier, 1795–1817. University Press of Kentucky.
ISBN 978-0-8131-2577-0.
Herring, George (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign
Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-976553-7.
Ketcham, Ralph (2003). James Madison: A Biography. Newtown CT:
American Political Biography Press. ISBN 9780813912653.
Kennedy, David M.; Cohen, Lizabeth & Bailey, Thomas Andrew (2008).
The American Pageant: A History of the American People. Wadsworth.
ISBN 978-0-547-16654-4.
Lawson, Gary & Seidman, Guy (2008). The Constitution of Empire:
Territorial Expansion and American Legal History. Yale University
Press. ISBN 0300128967.
Lewis, James E., Jr. (2003). The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase: Jefferson's Noble
Bargain?. UNC Press Books.
Luttig, John C. (1920). Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the
Upper Missouri: 1812–1813.
Kansas

Kansas City MO: The
Missouri

Missouri Historical
Society.
Malone, Michael P.; Roeder, Richard B. & Lang, William L. (1991).
Montana: A History of Two Centuries. Seattle: University of Washington
Press. ISBN 0-295-97129-0.
Meinig, D.W. (1995). The Shaping of America: Volume 2. Yale University
Press. ISBN 9780300062908.
Matthewson, Tim (May 1995). "Jefferson and Haiti". The Journal of
Southern History. 61 (2): 209–48. JSTOR 2211576.
Matthewson, Tim (March 1996). "Jefferson and the Non-Recognition of
Haiti". American Philosophical Society. 140 (1): 22–48.
JSTOR 987274.
Nugent, Walter (2009). Habits of Empire: A History of American
Expansionism. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-7818-9.
Prucha, Francis P. (1969). The Sword of the Republic: The United
States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. New York: Macmillan.
Rodriguez, Junius P. (2002). The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase: A Historical and
Geographical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071885.
Schoultz, Lars (1998). Beneath the United States. Harvard University
Press. ISBN 978-0-674-92276-1.
Thompson, Linda (2006). The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase. Rourke Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-59515-513-9.
Weber, David J. (1994). The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale
University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05917-5.
Ziegler, Philip (1988). The Sixth Great Power: Barings 1762–1929.
London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-217508-8.
Further reading
Hermann (1900). The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase and our title west of the Rocky
Mountains: with a review of annexation by the United States.
Hosmer, James Kendall (1902).
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase. New York: D.
Appleton & Co.
Marshall (1914). A History of the Western Boundary of the Louisiana
Purchase, 1819-1841.
U.S. Dept. of State (1903). State papers and correspondence bearing
upon the purchase of the territory of Louisiana.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase.
Wikisource

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Text of the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Library of Congress:
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Treaty
Teaching about the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial 1803–2003*Lewis and Clark Trail
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase and Lewis & Clark student and teacher guide:
dates, people, analysis, multimedia
New Orleans/
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase 1803
The
Haitian Revolution

Haitian Revolution and the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase
Case and Controversies in U.S. History, Page 42 Senator Pickering
explains his opposition to the
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase, 1803.
Booknotes interview with Jon Kukla on A Wilderness So Immense: The
Louisiana

Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America, July 6, 2003.
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Wallis and Futuna
Sui generis collectivity
New Caledonia
Uninhabited areas
Pacific Ocean
Clipperton Island
Overseas territory (French
Southern and Antarctic Lands)
Île Amsterdam
Île Saint-Paul
Crozet Islands
Kerguelen Islands
Adélie Land
Scattered islands in
the Indian Ocean
Bassas da India3
Europa Island3
Glorioso Islands2, 3
Juan de Nova Island3
Tromelin Island4
1 Also known as overseas regions
2 Claimed by Comoros
3 Claimed by Madagascar
4 Claimed by Mauritius
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