Differing literary and colloquial readings for certain Chinese characters are a common feature of many varieties of Chinese, Chinese varieties, and the reading distinctions for these Doublet (linguistics), linguistic doublets often typify a dialect group. Literary readings (/) are usually used in loanwords, names (geographic and personal), literary works (like poetry), and in formal settings, while colloquial/vernacular readings (/) are usually used in everyday vernacular speech. For example, in Standard Chinese, Mandarin, the character for the word "white" () is normally read with the colloquial pronunciation ''bái'' (), but as a name or in certain formal or historical settings it can be read with the literary pronunciation ''bó'' (). This example is particularly well known due to its effect on the modern pronunciation of the names of the Tang dynasty (618–907) poets Bai Juyi and Li Bai (alternatively, "Bo Juyi" and "Li Bo"). The differing pronunciations led linguists to explore the Stratum (linguistics), linguistic strata. It is generally believed that the colloquial readings represent a substratum, while their literary counterparts a superstratum. Such differences reflect a history of dialect mixing and the influence of education and instruction on the area.

Characteristics

For a given Chinese variety (linguistics), variety, colloquial readings typically reflect native phonology, while literary readings typically originate from other Chinese varieties, typically more prestige (sociolinguistics), prestigious varieties. Colloquial readings are usually older, resembling the sound systems described by old rime dictionary, rime dictionaries such as Guangyun. Literary readings are closer to the phonology of newer sound systems. In certain Mandarin and Wu dialects, many literary readings are the result of Nanjing Mandarin or Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin), Beijing Mandarin influence in the Ming Dynasty, Ming and Qing Dynasty, Qing dynasties. Literary readings are usually used in formal settings because past prestigious varieties were usually used in formal education and discourse. Although the phonology of the Chinese variety in which this occurred did not entirely match that of the prestige variety when in formal settings, they tended to evolve toward the prestige variety. Also, neologisms usually use the pronunciation of prestigious varieties. Colloquial readings are usually used in informal settings because their usage in formal settings has been supplanted by the readings of the prestige varieties. Because of this, the frequency of literary readings in a Chinese variety reflects its history and status. For example, before the promotion of Modern Standard Chinese (Mandarin), the Central Plains Mandarin, Mandarin dialects of the Zhongyuan, Central Plain had few literary readings, but they now have literary readings that resemble the phonology of Modern Standard Chinese. On the other hand, the relatively influential Beijing dialect, Beijing and Cantonese, Canton dialects have fewer literary readings than other varieties. In some Chinese varieties, there may be many instances of foreign readings replacing native readings, forming many sets of literary and colloquial readings. A newer literary reading may replace an older literary reading, and the older literary reading may become disused or become a new colloquial reading. Sometimes literary and colloquial readings of the same character have different meanings. The analogous phenomenon exists to a much more significant degree in Japanese language, Japanese, where individual characters (kanji) generally have two common Kanji#Readings, readings – the newer borrowed, more formal on'yomi, and the older native, more colloquial kun'yomi. Unlike in Chinese varieties, which are genetically related, in Japanese the borrowed readings are unrelated to the native readings. Further, many kanji in fact have several borrowed readings, reflecting borrowings at different periods – these multiple borrowings are generally doublets or triplets, sometimes quite distant. These readings are generally used in particular contexts, such as older readings for Buddhist terms, which were early borrowings.

Behavior in Chinese

Cantonese

In Standard Cantonese, Cantonese, there are regular relationships between the Syllable nucleus, nuclei of literary and colloquial readings. Colloquial readings with nuclei correspond with literary and nuclei. It is also the case with colloquial and literary , and colloquial and literary . Of course, not all colloquial readings with a certain nucleus correspond to literary readings with another nucleus. The meaning of a character is often differentiated depending on whether it is read with a colloquial or literary reading. Examples:

Hakka

Hakka Chinese, Hakka contains instances of differing literary and colloquial readings. Examples:

Mandarin

Literary readings in Standard Chinese, Modern Standard Mandarin are usually native pronunciations more conservative than colloquial readings. This is because they reflect readings from before Beijing was the capital, e.g. from the Ming Dynasty. Most instances where there are different literary and colloquial readings occur with characters that have entering tones. Among those are primarily literary readings that have not been adopted into the Beijing dialect before the Yuan Dynasty. Colloquial readings of other regions have also been adopted into the Beijing dialect, a major difference being that literary readings are usually adopted with the colloquial readings. Some of the Comparison of national standards of Chinese, differences between the Standard Chinese, national standards of Taiwanese Mandarin and Putonghua, mainland Chinese ''Pǔtōnghuà'' are due to the fact that Putonghua tends to adopt colloquial readings for a character while Guoyu tends to adopt a literary reading. Examples of literary readings adopted into the Beijing dialect: Examples of colloquial readings adopted into the Beijing dialect:

Sichuanese

In Sichuanese Mandarin, Sichuanese, colloquial readings tend to resemble Ba-Shu Chinese (Middle Sichuanese) or Proto-Mandarin, Southern Proto-Mandarin in Ming Dynasty, while literary readings tend to resemble modern standard Mandarin. For example, in the Yaoling Dialect the colloquial reading of "" (meaning "things") is [],杨升初（1985年S2期），《剑阁摇铃话音系记略》，湘潭大学社会科学学报 which is very similar to its pronunciation of Ba-Shu Chinese in Song Dynasty (960 - 1279).王庆（2010年04期），《四川方言中没、术、物的演变》，西华大学学报（哲学社会科学版） Meanwhile, its literary reading, [], is relatively similar to the standard Mandarin pronunciation []. The table below shows some Chinese characters with both literary and colloquial readings in Sichuanese.甄尚灵（1958年01期），《成都语音的初步研究》，四川大学学报（哲学社会科学版）

Wu

In the northern Wu Chinese, Wu-speaking region, the main sources of literary readings are the Beijing dialect, Beijing and Nanjing dialects during the Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasties, and Modern Standard Chinese. In the southern Wu-speaking region, literary readings tend to be adopted from the Hangzhou dialect. Colloquial readings tend to reflect an older sound system. Not all Wu dialects behave the same way. Some have more instances of discrepancies between literary and colloquial readings than others. For example, the character had a initial in Middle Chinese, and in literary readings, there is a null initial. In colloquial readings it is pronounced in Songjiang District, Songjiang. About 100 years ago, it was pronounced in Suzhou and Shanghai, and now it is . Some pairs of literary and colloquial readings are interchangeable in all cases, such as in the words and . Some must be read in one particular reading. For example, must be read using the literary reading, , and must be read using the colloquial reading, . Some differences in reading for the same characters have different meanings, such as , using the colloquial reading means "make great effort," and using the literary reading means "get a desired outcome." Some colloquial readings are almost never used, such as for and for . Examples:

Min Nan

Min Chinese, Min languages, such as Taiwanese Hokkien, separate reading pronunciations () from spoken pronunciations () and explications (). Hokkien dictionaries in Taiwan often differentiate between such character readings with prefixes for literary readings and colloquial readings ( and , respectively). The following examples in Pe̍h-oē-jī show differences in character readings in Taiwanese Hokkien: In addition, some characters have multiple and unrelated pronunciations, adapted to represent Hokkien words. For example, the Hokkien word ''bah'' ("meat") is often written with the character 肉, which has etymologically unrelated colloquial and literary readings (''he̍k'' and ''jio̍k'', respectively). For more explanation, see Hokkien#Literary and colloquial readings, Literary and colloquial readings in Hokkien.

Min Dong

In the Fuzhou dialect of Min Dong, literary readings are mainly used in formal phrases and words derived from the written language, while the colloquial ones are used in more colloquial phrases. Phonologically, a large range of phonemes can differ between the character's two readings: in tone, final, initial, or any and all of these features. The following table uses Foochow Romanized as well as IPA for some of the major differences in readings.

Gan

The following are examples of variations between literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters in Gan Chinese.