The
Kingdom of Alba
.jpg/400px-Coronation_Chair_and_Stone_of_Scone._Anonymous_Engraver._Published_in_A_History_of_England_(1855).jpg)
Kingdom of Alba refers to the
Kingdom of Scotland
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Scotland_(traditional).svg.png)
Kingdom of Scotland between the
deaths of Donald II (Domnall mac Causantin) in 900 and of Alexander
III in 1286, which then led indirectly to the Scottish Wars of
Independence. The name is one of convenience, as throughout this
period the elite and populace of the Kingdom were predominantly
Pictish-
Gaels

Gaels or later Pictish-
Gaels

Gaels and Scoto-Norman, and differs
markedly from the period of the Stuarts, in which the elite of the
kingdom were (for the most part) speakers of Middle English, which
later evolved and came to be called Lowland Scots. ' There is no
precise Gaelic equivalent for the English terminology "Kingdom of
Alba" as the Gaelic term Rìoghachd na h-Alba means 'Kingdom of
Scotland'. English speaking scholars adapted the Gaelic name for
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland to apply to a particular political period in Scottish history
during the High Middle Ages.
Contents
1 Royal court
2 Kings of Alba
2.1 Donald II and Constantine II
2.2 Malcolm I to Malcolm II
2.3 Duncan I to Alexander I
2.4 Norman Kings: David I to Alexander III
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
5.1 Primary sources
5.2 Secondary sources
6 External links
6.1 Primary sources
6.2 Secondary sources
Royal court[edit]
Little is known about the structure of the Scottish royal court in the
period before the coming of the
Normans
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Normans to Scotland, before the reign
of David I. A little more is known about the court of the later 12th
and 13th centuries. In the words of Geoffrey Barrow, this court "was
emphatically feudal, Frankish, non-Celtic in character".[1] Some of
the offices were Gaelic in origin, such as the Hostarius (later Usher
or "Doorward"), the man in charge of the royal bodyguard, and the
rannaire, the Gaelic-speaking member of the court whose job was to
divide the food.[2]
The
Seneschal or dapifer (i.e. the Steward), had been hereditary since
the reign of David I. The Steward had responsibility for the royal
household and its management. (see High Steward of Scotland).
The
Chancellor
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Chancellor was in charge of the royal chapel. The latter was the
king's place of worship, but as it happened, was associated with the
royal scribes, responsible for keeping records. Usually, the
chancellor was a clergyman, and usually he held this office before
being promoted to a bishopric (see Lord
Chancellor
.jpg/440px-Angela_Merkel_(2008).jpg)
Chancellor of Scotland).
The Chamberlain had control and responsibility over royal finances
(see Chamberlain of Scotland)
The
Constable

Constable was also hereditary since the reign of David I and was
in charge of the crown's military resources (see Lord High Constable
of Scotland).
The
Butler

Butler (see
Butler

Butler of Scotland)
The
Marshal

Marshal or marischal. The marischal differed from the constable in
that he was more specialised, responsible for and in charge of the
royal cavalry forces (see Earl Marischal)
In the 13th century, all the other offices tended to be hereditary,
with the exception of the Chancellor. The royal household of course
came with numerous other offices. The most important was probably the
aforementioned hostarius, but there were others such as the royal
hunters, the royal foresters and the cooks (dispensa or spence).
Kings of Alba[edit]
Further information:
Origins of the Kingdom of Alba
.jpg/400px-Coronation_Chair_and_Stone_of_Scone._Anonymous_Engraver._Published_in_A_History_of_England_(1855).jpg)
Origins of the Kingdom of Alba and List of
Scottish monarchs
Donald II and Constantine II[edit]
King Donald II was the first man to have been called rí Alban (i.e.
King of Alba), when he died at Dunnottar in 900.[3] This meant king of
Caledonia

Caledonia or Scotland. All his predecessors bore the style of either
King of the
Picts

Picts or King of Fortriu. Such an apparent innovation in
the Gaelic chronicles is occasionally taken to spell the birth of
Scotland, but there is nothing special about his reign that might
confirm this. Donald had the nickname dásachtach. This simply meant a
madman, or in early Irish law, a man not in control of his functions
and hence without legal culpability.[4] The reason was possibly the
restlessness of his reign, continually spent fighting battles against
Vikings. It is possible he gained his unpopularity by violating the
rights of the church or through high taxes, but it is not known for
certain. However, his extremely negative nickname makes him an
unlikely founder of Scotland.
Donald's successor Constantine II (Causantín mac Aeda) is more often
regarded as a key figure in the formation of Alba.[5] Constantine
reigned for nearly half a century, fighting many battles. When he lost
at Brunanburh, he was clearly discredited and retired as a
Culdee

Culdee monk
at St. Andrews. Despite this, the
Prophecy of Berchán is full of
praise for the king, and in this respect is in line with the views of
other sources. Constantine is credited in later tradition as the man
who, with bishop Ceallach of St Andrews, brought the Catholic Church
in
Scotland
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Scotland into conformity with that of the larger Gaelic world,
although it is not known exactly what this means. There had been
Gaelic bishops in St Andrews for two centuries, and Gaelic churchmen
were amongst the oldest features of Caledonian Christianity. The
reform may have been organizational, or some sort of purge of certain
unknown and perhaps disliked legacies of Pictish ecclesiastical
tradition. However, other than these factors, it is difficult to
appreciate fully the importance of Constantine's reign.
Malcolm I to Malcolm II[edit]
The period between the accession of Malcolm I (Maol Caluim Mac
Domhnuill) and Malcolm II (Maol Caluim Mac Cionaodha) is marked by
good relations with the
Wessex

Wessex rulers of England, intense internal
dynastic disunity and, despite this, relatively successful
expansionary policies. Some time after an English invasion of cumbra
land (Old English for either
Strathclyde

Strathclyde or
Cumbria

Cumbria or both) by King
Edmund of England in 945, the English king handed the province over to
king Malcolm I on condition of a permanent alliance. Some time in the
reign of King
Indulf

Indulf (Idulb mac Causantín) (954–62), the Scots
captured the fortress called oppidum Eden, i.e. almost certainly
Edinburgh.[6] It was the first Scottish foothold in Lothian. The Scots
had probably had some authority in
Strathclyde

Strathclyde since the later part of
the 9th century, but the kingdom kept its own rulers, and it is not
clear that the Scots were always strong enough to enforce their
authority. In fact, one of Indulf's successors,
Cuilén
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Cuilén (
Cuilén
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Cuilén mac
Ilduilbh), died at the hands of the men of Strathclyde, perhaps while
trying to enforce his authority. King Kenneth II (Cionaodh Mac Maol
Chaluim) (971–95) began his reign by invading Britannia (possibly
Strathclyde), perhaps as an early assertion of his authority, and
perhaps also as a traditional Gaelic crechríghe (lit. "royal prey"),
the rite by which a king secured the success of his reign with an
inauguration raid in the territory of a historical enemy.[7]
The reign of Malcolm I (942/3–954) also marks the first known
tensions between the Scottish kingdom and Moray, the old heartland of
the Scoto-Pictish kingdom of Fortriu. The Chronicle of the Kings of
Alba reported that King Malcolm "went into Moray and slew Ceallach."
The same source tells us that King Malcolm was killed by the
Moravians.[8] This is the first definite sign of tension between the
Cenél nGabráin and Cenél Loairn, two kin-groups claiming descent
from different ancestors of Erc. During the reign of
Macbeth

Macbeth (Mac
Beathadh Mac Findláich), and his successor
Lulach

Lulach (
Lulach

Lulach Mac Gille
Comhgháin), the Moray-based
Cenél Loairn ruled all Scotland.
The reign of Malcolm II saw the final incorporation of these
territories. The critical year perhaps was 1018, when King Malcolm II
defeated the Northumbrians at the Battle of Carham. In the same year,
King
Owain Foel
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Owain Foel died, leaving his kingdom to his overlord Malcolm. A
meeting with King Canute of Denmark and England, probably about 1031,
seems to have further secured these conquests, although the exact
nature of Scottish rule over the
Lothian

Lothian and
Scottish Borders

Scottish Borders area was
not fully realised until the conquest and annexation of that province
during the Wars of Independence.
Duncan I to Alexander I[edit]
The
Stone of Scone

Stone of Scone in the Coronation Chair at Westminster Abbey, 1855.
It was the ceremonial coronation stone of Scotland's Gaelic kings,
similar to the Irish Lia Fáil.
The period between the accession of King Duncan I (Donnchadh Mac
Críonáin) (1034) and the death of Alexander I (1124) was the last
before the coming of the
Normans
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Normans to Scotland. In some respects, the
reign of King Malcolm III (Maol Caluim Mac Donnchaidh) prefigured the
changes which took place in the reigns of the French-speaking kings
David I and William I, although native reaction to the manner of
Duncan II's (Donnchad mac Máel Coluim) accession perhaps put these
changes back somewhat.
King Duncan I's reign was a military failure. He was defeated by the
native English at Durham in 1040, and was subsequently toppled. Duncan
had only been related to previous rulers through his mother Bethoc,
daughter of Malcolm II, who had married Crínán, the lay abbot of
Dunkeld

Dunkeld (and probably
Mormaer of Atholl

Mormaer of Atholl too). At a location called
Bothganowan (or Bothgowan, Bothgofnane, Bothgofuane, meaning
"Blacksmith's Hut" in old Gaelic,[9] today Pitgaveny near Elgin), the
Mormaer of Moray,
Macbeth

Macbeth defeated and killed Duncan, and took the
kingship for himself.[10] After Macbeth's successor Lulach, another
Moravian, all kings of
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland were Duncan's descendants. For this
reason, Duncan's reign is often remembered positively, while Macbeth
is villanised. Eventually,
William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare gave fame to this
medieval equivalent of propaganda by further immortalising both men in
his play Macbeth. Macbeth's reign however was successful enough that
he had the security to go on pilgrimage to Rome.
It was Malcolm III who acquired the nickname (as did his successors)
"Canmore" (Ceann Mór, "Great Chief"), and not his father Duncan, who
did more to create the successful dynasty which ruled
Scotland
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Scotland for the
following two centuries. Part of the success was the huge number of
children he had. Through two marriages, firstly to the Norwegian
Ingibiorg Finnsdottir, and secondly to the English princess Margaret
of Wessex, Malcolm had perhaps a dozen children. Malcolm and, if we
believe later hagiography, his wife, introduced the first Benedictine
monks to Scotland. However, despite having a royal Anglo-Saxon wife,
Malcolm spent more of his reign conducting slave raids against the
English, adding to the woes of that people in the aftermath of the
Norman Conquest of England

Norman Conquest of England and the Harrying of the North, as Marianus
Scotus tells us:
the Scots and French devastated the English; and [the English] were
dispersed and died of hunger; and were compelled to eat human flesh:
and to this end, to kill men, and to salt and dry them.”[11]
Malcolm died in one of these raids, in 1093. In the aftermath of his
death, the Norman rulers of England began their interference in the
Scottish kingdom. This interference was prompted by Malcolm's raids
and attempts to forge claims for his successors to the English
kingship. He had married the sister of the native English claimant to
the English throne, Edgar Ætheling, and had given most of his
children by this marriage Anglo-Saxon royal names. Moreover, he had
given support to many native English nobles, including Edgar himself,
and had been supporting native English insurrections against their
Norman rulers. In 1080, King William the Conqueror sent his son on an
invasion of Scotland. The invasion got as far as Falkirk, on the
boundary between Scotland-proper and Lothian, and Malcolm submitted to
the authority of the king, giving his oldest son Duncan as a hostage.
This submission perhaps gives the reason why Malcolm did not give his
last two sons, Alexander and David, Anglo-Saxon royal names.
Malcolm's natural successor was his brother, Donalbane (Domhnall Bán
Mac Donnchaidh), as Malcolm's sons were young. However, the Norman
state to the south sent Malcolm's son Duncan to take the kingship. In
the ensuing conflict, the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us that:
Donnchadh went to
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland with what aid he could get of the English
and French, and deprived his kinsman Domhnall of the Kingdom, and was
received as King. But afterwards some of the Scots gathered themselves
together, and slew almost all of his followers; and he himself escaped
with few. Thereafter they were reconciled on the condition that he
should never again introduce English or French into the land”[12]
Duncan was killed the same year, 1094, and Donalbane resumed sole
kingship. However, the Norman state sent another of Malcolm's sons,
Edgar to take the kingship. Anglo-Norman policy worked, because
thereafter all kings of
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland succeeded, not without opposition of
course, under a system very closely corresponding with the
primogeniture that operated in the French-speaking world. The reigns
of both Edgar and his brother and successor Alexander are
comparatively obscure. The former's most notable act was to send a
camel (or perhaps an elephant) to his fellow
Gael

Gael Muirchertach Ua
Briain, High King of Ireland.[13] When Edgar died, Alexander took the
kingship, while his youngest brother David became Prince of "Cumbria"
and ruler of Lothian.
Norman Kings: David I to Alexander III[edit]
Book of Deer, folio 29v contains a portrait of the Evangelist Luke; a
list of privileges and legends were written legends in Gaelic and
Latin in the margins, in lowland Buchan in the reign of David I.
The period between the accession of David I and the death of Alexander
III was marked by dependence upon, and relatively good relations with,
the Kings of the English. It was also a period of historical expansion
for the Scottish kingdom, and witnessed the successful imposition of
royal authority across most of the modern country. The period was one
of a great deal of historical change, and much of the modern
historiographical literature is devoted to this change (especially
G.W.S. Barrow), part of a more general phenomenon which has been
called the "Europeanisation of Europe".[14] More recent works though,
while acknowledging that a great deal of change did take place,
emphasise that this period was in fact also one of great continuity
(e.g. Cynthia Neville, Richard Oram, Dauvit Broun, and others).
Indeed, the period is subject to many misconceptions. For instance,
English did not spread all over the Lowlands (see language section),
and neither did English names; and, moreover even by 1300, most native
lordships remained in native Gaelic hands, with only a minority
passing to men of French or Anglo-French origin; furthermore, the
Normanisation and imposition of royal authority in
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland was not a
peaceful process, but in fact cumulatively more violent than the
Norman Conquest of England; additionally, the Scottish kings were not
independent monarchs, but vassals to the King of the English, although
not "legally" for
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland north of the Forth.
The important changes which did occur include the extensive
establishment of burghs (see section), in many respects Scotland's
first urban institutions; the feudalisation, or more accurately, the
Francization

Francization of aristocratic martial, social and inheritance customs;
the de-Scotticisation of ecclesiastical institutions; the imposition
of royal authority over most of modern Scotland; and the drastic drift
at the top level from traditional Gaelic culture, so that after David
I, the Kingship of the Scots resembled more closely the kingship of
the French and English, than it did the lordship of any large-scale
Gaelic kingdom in Ireland.
After David I, and especially in the reign of William I, Scotland's
King's became ambivalent about, if not hostile towards, the culture of
most of their subjects. As
Walter of Coventry tells us:
The modern kings of Scotia count themselves as Frenchmen, in race,
manners, language and culture; they keep only Frenchmen in their
household and following, and have reduced the Scots [=
Gaels

Gaels north of
the Forth] to utter servitude[15]
The ambivalence of the kings was matched to a certain extent by their
subjects. In the aftermath of William's capture at
Alnwick

Alnwick in 1174,
the Scots turned on their king's English-speaking and French-speaking
subjects.
William of Newburgh related the events:
When [King William] was given over into the hands of the enemy, God's
vengeance permitted not also that his most evil army should go away
unhurt. For when they learned of the King's capture the barbarians at
first were stunned, and desisted from spoil; and presently, as if
driven by furies, the sword which they had taken up against their
enemy and which was now drunken with innocent blood they turned
against their own army.
Now there was in the same army a great number of English; for the
towns and burghs of the Scottish realm are known to be inhabited by
English. On the occasion therefore of this opportunity the Scots
declared their hatred against them, innate, though masked through fear
of the king; and as many as they fell upon they slew, the rest who
could escape fleeing back to the royal castles[16]
Walter Bower, writing a few centuries later albeit, wrote about the
same event:
At that time after the capture of their king, the Scots together with
the Galwegians , in the mutual slaughter that took place, killed their
English and French compatriots without mercy or pity, making frequent
attacks on them. At that time also there took place a most wretched
and widespread persecution of the English both in
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland and
Galloway. So intense was it that no consideration was shown to the sex
of any, but all were cruelly killed ...[17]
Opposition to the Scottish kings in this period was indeed hard. The
first instance is perhaps the revolt of Óengus of Moray, the Mormaer
of Moray, the crushing of which led to the colonisation of Moray by
foreign burgesses, and Franco-Flemish and Anglo-French aristocrats.
Rebellions continued throughout the 12th century and into the 13th.
Important resistors to the expansionary Scottish kings were Somhairle
Mac Gille Brighdhe, Fergus of Galloway,
Gille Brigte of Galloway and
Harald Maddadsson, along with two kin-groups known today as the
MacHeths and the Meic Uilleim.[citation needed] The latter claimed
descent from king Donnchadh II, through his son William, and rebelled
for no less a reason than the Scottish throne itself. The threat was
so grave that, after the defeat of the MacWilliams in 1230, the
Scottish crown ordered the public execution of the baby girl who
happened to be the last MacWilliam. This was how the Lanercost
Chronicle relates the fate of this last MacWilliam:
the same Mac-William's daughter, who had not long left her mother's
womb, innocent as she was, was put to death, in the burgh of Forfar,
in view of the market place, after a proclamation by the public crier.
Her head was struck against the column of the market cross, and her
brains dashed out[18]
Many of these resistors collaborated, and drew support not just in the
peripheral Gaelic regions of Galloway, Moray, Ross and Argyll, but
also from eastern "Scotland-proper", Ireland and Mann. By the end of
the 12th century, the Scottish kings had acquired the authority and
ability to draw in native Gaelic lords outside their previous zone of
control to do their work, the most famous examples being Lochlann,
Lord of Galloway

Lord of Galloway and Fearchar Mac an t-Sagairt.
Such accommodation assisted expansion to the Scandinavian-ruled lands
of the west. Uilleam, the native Mormaer of Ross, was a pivotal figure
in the expansion of the Scottish kingdom into the Hebrides, as was
Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí, the key pro-Scottish Hebridean chief, who
married his daughter to Uilleam, the Mormaer of Mar. The Scottish king
was able to draw on the support of Alan, Lord of Galloway, the master
of the
Irish Sea

Irish Sea region, and was able to make use of the Galwegian
ruler's enormous fleet of ships. The Mormaers of Lennox forged links
with the Argyll chieftains, bringing a kin-group such as the Campbells
into the Scottish fold. Cumulatively, by the reign of Alexander III,
the Scots were in a strong position to annexe the remainder of the
western seaboard, which they did in 1266, with the Treaty of Perth.
Orkney

Orkney too was coming into the Scottish fold. In the 12th century,
Mormaer Matad's son Harald was established on the
Orkney

Orkney Earldom.
Thereafter, the
Orkney

Orkney earl (also Mormaer of Caithness) was just as
much a Scottish vassal as a Norwegian one. Descendants of the Gaelic
Mormaers of Angus ruled
Orkney

Orkney for much of the 13th century. In the
early 14th century, another
Scottish Gaelic

Scottish Gaelic noble, Maol Íosa V of
Strathearn became Earl of Orkney, although formal Scottish sovereignty
over the
Northern Isles

Northern Isles did not come for more than another century.
The conquest of the west, the creation of the Mormaerdom of Carrick in
1186 and the absorption of the Lordship of Galloway after the
Galwegian revolt of 1135 meant that the number and proportion of
Gaelic speakers under the rule of the Scottish king actually
increased, and perhaps even doubled, in the so-called Norman period.
It was the
Gaels

Gaels and Gaelicised warriors of the new west, and the
power they offered, that enabled King Robert I (himself a Gaelicised
Scoto-Norman of Carrick) to emerge victorious during the Wars of
Independence, which followed soon after the death of Alexander III.
See also[edit]
Albany
Notes[edit]
^ Barrow, Robert Bruce, (1998), p. 7.
^ Barrow, Kingship and Unity, p. 34.
^ AU, s.a. 900; A.O. Anderson, Early Sources, vol. i, p. 395
^ Kelly, Early Irish Law, (1998), p.92.
^ e.g.
BBC

BBC documentary In Search of Scotland, ep. 2.
^ Hudson, Celtic Kings, (1994), p. 89
^ Hudson, Celtic Kings, (1994), pp. 95–6
^ A.O. Anderson, Early Sources, vol. i, p. 452.
^ Historical Sources of Macbeth.
^ Hudson, Celtic Kings, p. 124.
^ A.O. Anderson, Early Sources, vol. ii, p. 23, & n. 1.
^ Normanists tend to sideline or downplay opposition amongst the
native Scots to Canmore authority, but much work has been done on the
topic recently, especially R. Andrew McDonald, Outlaws of Medieval
Scotland: Challenges to the Canmore Kings, 1058–1266, (East Linton,
2003)
^ Annals of Inisfallen, s.a. 1105–1107/7, available here;
^ Bartlett, The Making of Europe (1993).
^ Memoriale Fratris Walteri de Coventria, ed. W. Stubbs, (Rolls
Series, no. 58), ii. 206.
^ William of Newburgh, Historia Rerum Anglicarum, in R. Howlett (ed.)
Chronicles of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, (Rolls Series, no. 82),
Vol. I, pp 186–187.
^ Walter Bower, Scottichronicon, VIII. 22., 30–40.
^ Chronicle of Lanercost, 40–1, quoted in McDonald, Outlaws, p. 46.
References[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286,
2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922)
Anderson, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD
500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.)
(Stamford, 1991)
Gerald of Wales, The History and Topography of Ireland, tr. John O'
Meary, (London, 1982)
Guillaume le Clerc, Fergus of Galloway, tr. D.D.R. Owen, (London,
1991)
Skene, William F. (ed.), Chronicles of the
Picts

Picts and Scots: And Other
Memorials of Scottish History, (Edinburgh, 1867)
Secondary sources[edit]
Bannerman, John, "MacDuff of Fife," in A. Grant & K.Stringer
(eds.) Medieval Scotland: Crown, Lordship and Community, Essays
Presented to G.W.S. Barrow, (Edinburgh, 1993), pp. 20–38
Bannerman, John, “The Kings Poet”, in The Scottish Historical
Review, V. LXVIII, (1989)
Barron, Evan MacLeod, The Scottish War of Independence: A Critical
Study, 2nd Edition, (Inverness, 1934)
Barrow, G.W.S., The Anglo-Norman Era in Scottish History, (Oxford,
1980)
Barrow, G.W.S., Feudal Britain, (London, 1956)
Barrow, G.W.S., The Kingdom of the Scots, (Edinburgh, 2003)
Barrow, G.W.S., Kingship and Unity: Scotland, 1000–1306, (Edinburgh.
1981)
Barrow, G.W.S., “The Reign of William the Lion”, in
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland and
Its Neighbours In the Middle Ages, (London, 1992), pp. 67–89
Barrow, G.W.S., Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of
Scotland, (Edinburgh, 1988)
Bartlett, Robert, The Making of Europe, Conquest, Colonization and
Cultural Change: 950–1350, (London, 1993).
Broun, Dauvit “Defining
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland and the Scots Before the Wars of
Independence,” in Image and Identity: the Making and Remaking of
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland through the Ages, in. D. Broun, R. Finlay & M. Lynch
(eds.), (
Edinburgh

Edinburgh 1998), pp. 4–17
Broun, Dauvit, "
Dunkeld

Dunkeld and the origin of Scottish identity", in Innes
Review 48 (1997), pp. 112–24, reprinted in Spes Scotorum: Hope
of Scots, eds. Broun and Clancy (1999), pp. 95–111
Broun, Dauvit, “Gaelic Literacy in Eastern
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland between 1124 and
1249” in Huw Pryce (ed.), Literacy in Medieval Celtic Societies,
(Cambridge, 1998), pp. 183–201.
Broun, Dauvit, The Irish Identity of the Kingdom of the Scots in the
Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, (Woodbridge 1999)
Broun, Dauvit & Clancy, Thomas Owen (eds.),Spes Scottorum: Hope of
the Scots, (Edinburgh, 1999)
Broun, D., "The Welsh identity of the kingdom of Strathclyde, ca
900–ca 1200", in Innes Review 55 (2004), pp. 111–80.
Davies, R.R., The First English Empire: Power and Identity in the
British Isles 1093–1343, (Oxford, 2000)
Driscoll, Steven, Alba: The Gaelic
Kingdom of Scotland
.svg/250px-Flag_of_Scotland_(traditional).svg.png)
Kingdom of Scotland AD 800–1124,
(Edinburgh, 1996)
Ferguson, William, The Identity of the Scottish Nation: An Historic
Enquiry, (Edinburgh, 1998)
Gillingham, John, The Angevin Empire, (London, 1984)
Gillingham, John, The English in the Twelfth Century: Imperialism,
National Identity and Political Values, (Woodbridge, 2000)
Hudson, Benjamin T., Kings of Celtic Scotland, (Westport, 1994)
Lynch, Michael, Scotland: A New History, (Edinburgh, 1992)
McDonald, R. Andrew, "Old and new in the far North: Ferchar
Maccintsacairt and the early earls of Ross" in Steve Boardman and
Alasdair Ross (eds.) The Exercise of Power in Medieval Scotland, c.
1200–1500, (Dublin/Portland, 2003)
McDonald, R. Andrew, Outlaws of Medieval Scotland: Challenges to the
Canmore Kings, 1058–1266, (East Linton, 2003)
MacLeod, W., Divided Gaels: Gaelic Cultural Identities in
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland and
Ireland: c. 1200–1650, (Oxford, 2004)
Neville, Cynthia J., Native Lorship in Medieval Scotland: The Earldoms
of Strathearn and Lennox, c. 1140–1365, (Portland/Dublin, 2005)
Oram, Richard, The Lordship of Galloway, (Edinburgh, 2000)
Owen, D.D.R., The Reign of William the Lion: Kingship and Culture,
1143–1214, (East Linton, 1997)
Roberts, John L., Lost Kingdoms: Celtic
Scotland
.PNG)
Scotland in the Middle Ages,
(Edinburgh, 1997)
Stringer, Keith J., "The Emergence of a Nation-State, 1100–1300", in
Jenny Wormald (ed.), Scotland: A History, (Oxford, 2005),
pp. 38–76
Young, Alan, "Buchan in the 13th century" in Alexander Grant &
Keith J. Stringer (eds.) Medieval Scotland: Crown, Lordship and
Community Essays Presented to G.W.S Barrow, (Edinburgh, 1993)
External links[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Annals of Tigernach
Annals of Ulster
Chronicon Scotorum
Secondary sources[edit]
MacQueen "Laws and Languages"
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