The Kingdom of
Northumbria

Northumbria (/nɔːrˈθʌmbriə/; Old English:
Norþanhymbra rīce[1]) was a medieval Anglian kingdom in what is now
northern
England

England and south-east Scotland. The name derives from the
Old English

Old English Norþan-hymbre meaning "the people or province north of
the Humber,"[2] which reflects the approximate southern limit to the
kingdom's territory, the
Humber

Humber Estuary.
Northumbria

Northumbria started to
consolidate into one kingdom in the early seventh century. At its
height, the kingdom extended from just south of the
Humber

Humber to the
River Mersey

River Mersey and to the Firth of Forth, in Scotland. Northumbria
ceased to be an independent kingdom in the mid-tenth century.
Northumbria

Northumbria is also used in the names of some North East regional
institutions, particularly the police force (
Northumbria

Northumbria Police, which
covers
Northumberland

Northumberland and Tyne and Wear), a university (Northumbria
University) based in
Newcastle upon Tyne

Newcastle upon Tyne and
Northumbria

Northumbria Army Cadet
Force, as well as the regionalist Northumbrian Association[3]. The
local
Environment Agency

Environment Agency office, located in Newcastle Business Park,
also uses the term
Northumbria

Northumbria to describe its patch. Otherwise, the
term is not the official name for the UK and EU region of North East
England.
Contents
1 Kingdom (654–954)
1.1 Communities and Divisions
1.1.1 Possible British Origins
1.1.2 The Unification of
Bernicia

Bernicia and Deira
1.1.3
Northumbria

Northumbria and Norse Settlement
1.2 Notable Kings
1.2.1
Æthelfrith

Æthelfrith (r. 593–616)
1.2.2
Edwin

Edwin (r. 616–633)
1.2.3 Oswald (r. 634–642)
1.2.4
Oswiu

Oswiu (r. 642–654)
1.2.5
Halfdan Ragnarsson

Halfdan Ragnarsson (r. 876–877)
1.2.6
Æthelstan

Æthelstan of
Wessex

Wessex (r. 927–939)
1.2.7 Eric of
York

York (r. 947–948, 952–954)
1.2.8
Eadred

Eadred of
Wessex

Wessex (r. 946–954)
1.3 Politics and War
2 Ealdormen and Earldoms of Northumbria
3 Religion
3.1 Roman and Post-Roman Britain
3.2 Conversion of the
Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons to Christianity
3.3 Monasteries and Figures of Note
3.4 Synod of Whitby
3.5 Effects of Scandinavian Attack, Settlement, & Culture on
Religion
4 Culture
4.1 The Golden Age of Northumbria
4.2 Insular Art
4.3 Literature
4.4 Scandinavians and the Danelaw
5 Economy
6 Language
7 See also
8 Footnotes
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Primary Sources
10.2 Secondary Sources
11 External links
Kingdom (654–954)[edit]
Communities and Divisions[edit]
Possible British Origins[edit]
The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of
Northumbria

Northumbria was originally two kingdoms
divided approximately around the River Tees:
Bernicia

Bernicia was to the north
of the river and
Deira

Deira to the south[4]. It is possible that both
regions originated as native British Kingdoms which the Germanic
settlers later conquered, although there is very little information
about the infrastructure and culture of the British kingdoms
themselves[5]. Much of the evidence for them comes from regional names
that are British rather than Anglo-Saxon in origin. The names Deira
and
Bernicia

Bernicia likely originate from British words, for example,
indicating that some British place names retained currency after the
Anglo-Saxon migrations to Northumbria[a]. There is also some
archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of
Bernicia

Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in the
Cheviot Hills, a hill fort at
Yeavering

Yeavering called
Yeavering

Yeavering Bell contains
evidence that it was an important center for first the British and
later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-Roman, dating back
to the
Iron Age

Iron Age at around the first century. In addition to signs of
Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that
pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of
British settlement. Moreover, Brian Hope-Taylor has traced the origins
of the name Yeavering, which looks deceptively English, back to the
British gafr from Bede’s mention of a township called Gefrin in the
same area.[9][10]
Yeavering

Yeavering continued to be an important political
center after the
Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons began settling in the north, as King
Edwin

Edwin had a royal palace at Yeavering.[11]
Overall, English place-names dominate the Northumbrian landscape,
suggesting the prevalence of an Anglo-Saxon elite culture by the time
that Bede—one of Anglo-Saxon England’s most prominent
historians—was writing in the eighth century.[12][13] According to
Bede, the
Angles

Angles predominated the Germanic immigrants that settled
north of the
Humber

Humber and gained political prominence during this time
period.[14] While the British natives may have partially assimilated
into the Northumbrian political structure, relatively contemporary
textual sources such as Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English
People depict relations between Northumbrians and the British as
fraught.[15]
The Unification of
Bernicia

Bernicia and Deira[edit]
The Anglo-Saxon countries of
Bernicia

Bernicia and
Deira

Deira were often in conflict
before their eventual semi-permanent unification in 654. Political
power in
Deira

Deira was concentrated in the East Riding of Yorkshire, which
included York, the North
Yorkshire

Yorkshire Moors, and the Vale of York.[16]
The political heartlands of
Bernicia

Bernicia were the areas around Bamburgh
and Lindisfarne,
Monkwearmouth

Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, and in Cumbria, west of the
Pennines

Pennines in the area around Carlisle.[17] The name that these two
countries eventually united under, Northumbria, may have been coined
by
Bede

Bede and made popular through his Ecclesiastical History of the
English People.[18]
Information on the early royal genealogies for
Bernicia

Bernicia and Deira
comes from Bede’s
Ecclesiastical History of the English People

Ecclesiastical History of the English People and
Welsh chronicler Nennius’ Historia Brittonum. According to Nennius,
the Bernician royal line begins with Ida, son of Eoppa.[19] Ida
reigned for twelve years (beginning in 547) and was able to annex
Bamburgh

Bamburgh to Bernicia.[20] In Nennius’ genealogy of Deira, a king
named Soemil was the first to separate
Bernicia

Bernicia and Deira, which could
mean that he wrested the kingdom of
Deira

Deira from the native British.[21]
The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king
to make an appearance in Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis
Anglorum is Ælle, the father of the first Christian Northumbrian king
Edwin.[22]
A king of Bernicia, Ida’s grandson Æthelfrith, was the first ruler
to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin
to the court of King Rædwald of the East
Angles

Angles in order to claim
both kingdoms, but
Edwin

Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer
Northumbria

Northumbria with Rædwald’s aid.[23][24] Edwin, who ruled from
approximately 616 to 633, was one of the last kings of the Deiran line
to reign over all of Northumbria; it was Oswald of
Bernicia

Bernicia (c.
634-42) who finally succeeded in making the merger more permanent.[25]
Oswald’s brother
Oswiu

Oswiu eventually succeeded him to the Northumbrian
throne despite initial attempts on Deira’s part to pull away
again.[24] Although the Bernician line ultimately became the royal
line of Northumbria, a series of Derian sub-kings continued after
Oswald, including Oswine (a relation of
Edwin

Edwin murdered by
Oswiu

Oswiu in
651), Œthelwald (killed in battle 655), and Aldfrith (son of Oswiu,
who disappeared after 664).[24] Although both Œthelwald and Aldfrith
were Oswiu’s relations who may have received their sub-king status
from him, both used
Deira

Deira separatist sentiments to try to snatch
independent rule of Deira.[21] Ultimately, neither were successful and
Oswiu’s son Ecgfrith succeeded him to maintain the integrated
Northumbrian line.[24]
While violent conflicts between
Bernicia

Bernicia and
Deira

Deira played a
significant part in determining which line ultimately gained supremacy
in Northumbria, marriage alliances also helped bind these two
territories together.
Æthelfrith

Æthelfrith married Edwin’s sister Acha,
although this marriage did little to prevent future squabbles between
the brothers-in-law and their descendants. The second intermarriage
was more successful, with
Oswiu

Oswiu marrying Edwin’s daughter and his
own cousin
Eanflæd to produce Ecgfrith, the beginning of the
Northumbrian line. However,
Oswiu

Oswiu had another relationship with an
Irish woman named Fina which produced the problematic Aldfrith.[24] In
his Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert,
Bede

Bede declares that Aldfrith,
known as Fland among the Irish, was illegitimate and therefore unfit
to rule.[26]
Northumbria

Northumbria and Norse Settlement[edit]
The
Viking

Viking invasions of the ninth century and the establishment of the
Danelaw

Danelaw once again divided Northumbria. Although primarily recorded in
the southern provinces of England, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles
(particularly the D and E recensions) provide some information on
Northumbria’s conflicts with
Vikings

Vikings in the late eighth and early
ninth centuries. According to these chronicles,
Viking

Viking raids began to
affect
Northumbria

Northumbria when a band attacked
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne in 793.[27] After
this initial catastrophic blow,
Viking

Viking raids in
Northumbria

Northumbria were
either sporadic for much of the early ninth century or evidence of
them was lost.[28] However, in 865 the so-called Great Heathen Army
landed in
East Anglia

East Anglia and began a sustained campaign of
conquest.[29][30] The Great Army fought in
Northumbria

Northumbria in 866–867,
striking
York

York twice in less than one year. After the initial attack
the Norse left to go north, leaving Kings Ælle and Osberht to
recapture the city. The E recension of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
suggests that
Northumbria

Northumbria was particularly vulnerable at this time
because the Northumbrians were once again fighting among themselves,
deposing Osberht in favor of Ælle.[31] In the second raid the Vikings
killed the Northumbrian kings Ælle and Osberht while recapturing the
city.[29]
After King Alfred reestablished his control of southern
England

England the
Norse invaders settled into what came to be known as the
Danelaw

Danelaw in
the Midlands, East Anglia, and the southern part of Northumbria.[29]
In Northumbria, the Norse established the Kingdom of
York

York whose
boundaries were roughly the
River Tees

River Tees and the Humber, giving it
approximately the same dimensions as Deira.[32] Although this kingdom
fell to Hiberno-Norse colonizers in the 920s and was in constant
conflict with the West-Saxon expansionists from the south, it survived
until 954 when the last Scandinavian king Eric, who is usually
identified as Eric Bloodaxe, was driven out and eventually
killed.[33][34][35]
In contrast, the Great Army was not as successful in conquering
territory north of the River Tees. There were raids that extended into
that area, but no sources mention lasting Norse occupation and there
are very few Scandinavian place names to indicate significant Norse
settlement in northern regions of Northumbria.[36] The political
landscape of the area north of the Tees during the
Viking

Viking conquest of
Northumbria

Northumbria consisted of the Community of St.
Cuthbert

Cuthbert and the
remnants of the English Northumbrian elites.[37] While the religious
Community of St.
Cuthbert

Cuthbert "wandered" for a hundred years after Halfdan
Ragnarsson attacked their original home
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne in 875, The
History of St.
Cuthbert

Cuthbert indicates that they settled temporarily at
Chester-le-Street

Chester-le-Street between the years 875–883 on land granted to them
by the
Viking

Viking King of York, Guthred.[38][39] According to the
twelfth-century account Historia Regum,
Guthred granted them this land
in exchange for their raising him up as king. The land extended from
the Tees to the Tyne and anyone who fled there from either the north
or the south would receive sanctuary for thirty-seven days, indicating
that the Community of St.
Cuthbert

Cuthbert had some juridical autonomy. Based
on their positioning and this right of sanctuary, this community may
have acted as a buffer between the Norse in southern
Northumbria

Northumbria and
the
Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons who continued to hold the north.[40][41]
North of the Tyne, Northumbrians maintained partial political control
in Bamburgh. The rule of kings continued in that area with Ecgberht I
acting as regent around 867 and the kings Ricsige and Ecgberht II
immediately following him.[42] According to twelfth-century historian
Symeon of Durham, Ecgberht I was a client-king for the Norse. The
Northumbrians revolted against him in 872, deposing him in favor of
Ricsige.[43] Although the A and E recensions of the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle report that Halfdan was able to take control of
Deira

Deira and
take a raiding party north of the
River Tyne

River Tyne to impose his rule on
Bernicia

Bernicia in 874, after Halfdan’s death (c. 877) the Norse had
difficulty holding on to territory in northern Bernicia.[44][45]
Ricsige and his successor Ecgberht were able to maintain an English
presence in Northumbria. After the reign of Ecgberht II, Eadwulf "King
of the North Saxons" (r. 890–912) succeeded him for control of
Bamburgh, but after Eadwulf rulership of this area switched over to
earls who may have also been related to the last of the royal
Northumbrian house.[46]
Notable Kings[edit]
Main article: List of monarchs of Northumbria
Æthelfrith

Æthelfrith (r. 593–616)[edit]
Main article: Æthelfrith
Æthelfrith

Æthelfrith was the first Anglo-Saxon leader to hold the thrones of
both
Deira

Deira and Bernicia,[47] and so he ruled over all the people north
of the Humber. His rule was notable for his numerous victories over
the Britons and the Gaels.[48]
Edwin

Edwin (r. 616–633)[edit]
Main article:
Edwin

Edwin of Northumbria
Edwin, like Æthelfrith, was king of both
Deira

Deira and
Bernicia

Bernicia and ruled
them from 616 to 633. Under his reign the
Isle of Man

Isle of Man and the lands of
Gwynedd

Gwynedd in Northern Wales were incorporated into Northumbria. Edwin
married Æthelburh, a Christian Princess from
Kent
.jpg/440px-KENT-338E94._Early_Medieval_silver_coin,_penny_of_Aethelstan_II_Guthran._(FindID_132251).jpg)
Kent in 625. He
converted to
Christianity

Christianity two years later after a period of heavy
consideration and after consulting numerous advisors.[49]
Edwin

Edwin fell
in battle in 633 against the pagan kings Cadwallon of
Gwynedd

Gwynedd and
Penda of Mercia.[50] He was venerated as a saint and martyr after his
death.[51]
Oswald (r. 634–642)[edit]
Main article: Oswald of Northumbria
Oswald was a King of Bernicia, who would regain the kingdom of Deira
after defeating Cadwallon in 634. Oswald would then rule Northumbria
until his death in 642. A devout Christian, Oswald worked tirelessly
to spread the religion in his traditionally pagan lands. It was during
his reign that the monastery at
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne was created. Oswald fell
in the Battle of
Maserfield

Maserfield against
Penda of Mercia

Penda of Mercia in 642 but his
influence endured because, like Edwin, Oswald was venerated as a saint
after his death.[52]
Oswiu

Oswiu (r. 642–654)[edit]
Main article: Oswiu
Oswiu

Oswiu was the brother of Oswald and succeeded him after the latter’s
defeat in Maserfield.
Oswiu

Oswiu succeeded where
Edwin

Edwin and Oswald failed
as, in 655, he slew Penda during the Battle of the Winwaed, making him
the first Northumbrian King to also control the kingdom of Mercia.[53]
During his reign, he presided over the Synod of Whitby, an attempt to
reconcile religious differences between Roman and Celtic Catholicism,
in which he eventually backed the Roman beliefs.[54]
Oswiu

Oswiu died from
illness in 670 and divided
Deira

Deira and
Bernicia

Bernicia between two of his
sons.[55]
Halfdan Ragnarsson

Halfdan Ragnarsson (r. 876–877)[edit]
Main article: Halfdan Ragnarsson
Halfdan Ragnarsson

Halfdan Ragnarsson was a
Viking

Viking leader of the
Great Heathen Army

Great Heathen Army which
invaded
England

England in 865.[56] He allegedly wanted revenge against
Northumbria

Northumbria for the death of his father, who was supposedly killed by
Ælla of Northumbria.[57] While he himself only ruled Northumbria
directly for about a year in 876, he placed Ecgberht on the throne as
a client-king, who ruled from 867 to 872.[58] Halfdan was killed in
Ireland

Ireland in 877 whilst trying to regain control over Dublin, a land he
had ruled since 875. There were no further
Viking

Viking kings in Northumbria
until Guthfrith took over in 883.[59]
Æthelstan

Æthelstan of
Wessex

Wessex (r. 927–939)[edit]
Main article: Æthelstan
Æthelstan

Æthelstan ruled as King of the
Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927 and King
of the English from 927 to 939. The shift in his title reflects that
in 927,
Æthelstan

Æthelstan conquered the
Viking

Viking Kingdom of York, previously
part of the Northumbrian Kingdom.[60] His reign was quite prosperous
and saw great strides in many fields such as law and economics, but
was also characterized by frequent clashes with the Scots and the
Vikings.[61]
Æthelstan

Æthelstan died in 939, which led to the Vikings’
retaking of York.
Æthelstan

Æthelstan is widely considered one of the greatest
Anglo-Saxon kings for his efforts to consolidate the English kingdom
and the prosperity his reign brought.[62]
Eric of
York

York (r. 947–948, 952–954)[edit]
Main article: Eric Bloodaxe
In the early twentieth century, historians identified Eric of York
with the Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe, but some more recent
scholarship has challenged this association. He held two short terms
as King of Northumbria, from 947 to 948 and 952 to 954.[b] Historical
documentation on his reign is scarce, but it seems Eric pushed out the
joint English-
Viking

Viking rulers of
Northumbria

Northumbria in 947 [63] who were then
able to regain the land in 948/9. Eric took back the throne in 952,
only to be deposed again in 954.[64] Eric of
York

York was the last Danish
King of Northumbria, as after his death in 954
Eadred

Eadred of Wessex
stripped the kingdom’s independent status and made the land part of
England.
Eadred

Eadred of
Wessex

Wessex (r. 946–954)[edit]
Main article: Eadred
Eadred

Eadred of
Wessex

Wessex was the half-brother of
Æthelstan

Æthelstan and Eadmund of
Wessex, all of whom were fathered by Edward the Elder. He was
nominally the ruler of
Northumbria

Northumbria from 946, as he succeeded Eadmund,
but had to deal with the threat of independent
Viking

Viking kingdoms under
Amlaíb Cuarán
_of_Amlaib_Cuaran.png)
Amlaíb Cuarán and Eric Bloodaxe. He permanently absorbed Northumbria
into the English Kingdom in 954 after the death of Eric. [65]
Politics and War[edit]
Main article: List of monarchs of Northumbria
Between the years of 737 AD and 806 AD
Northumbria

Northumbria had 10 kings.[66]
These kings were either murdered, deposed, exiled, or they became
monks. However, kings throughout the entirety of Northumbria’s
history were susceptible to these methods of overthrowing regents.
Between Oswiu, the first
King of Northumbria

King of Northumbria in 654, and Eric
Bloodaxe, the last king of
Northumbria

Northumbria in 954, there were 45 Kings,
meaning that the average length of reign during the entire history of
Northumbria

Northumbria is only six and a half years. Of the 25 Kings before the
Danish rule of Northumbria, only four died of natural causes. Of those
that did not abdicate for a holy life, the rest were either deposed,
exiled, or murdered. Kings during the Danish rule of
Northumbria

Northumbria (see
Danelaw) were often either kings of a larger
North Sea

North Sea or Danish
empire, or were installed rulers.[67]
Succession in
Northumbria

Northumbria was hereditary [68], which left princes
whose fathers died before they could come of age particularly
susceptible to assassination and usurpation. A noteworthy example of
this phenomenon is Osred, whose father Aldfrith died in 705, leaving
the young boy to rule. He survived one assassination attempt early in
his rule, but fell victim to another assassin at the age of nineteen.
During his reign he was adopted by Wilfrid, a powerful bishop.[69]
Ecclesiastical influence in the royal court was not an unusual
phenomenon in Northumbria, and usually was most visible during the
rule of a young or inexperienced king. Similarly, ealdorman, or royal
advisors, had periods of increased or decreased power in Northumbria,
depending on who was ruling at the time.[70]
Warfare in
Northumbria

Northumbria before the Danish period largely consisted of
rivalries with the
Picts

Picts to the north. The Northumbrians were
successful against the
Picts

Picts until the
Battle of Dun Nechtain

Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685,
which halted their expansion north and established a border between
the two kingdoms. Warfare during the Danish period was dominated by
warfare between the Northumbrians and other English Kingdoms.
Ealdormen and Earldoms of Northumbria[edit]
Main article: Earl of Northumbria
See also: Ealdorman
After the English absorbed the territory of the former kingdom, Scots
invasions reduced
Northumbria

Northumbria to an earldom stretching from the Humber
to the Tweed.
Northumbria

Northumbria was disputed between the emerging kingdoms
of
England

England and Scotland.
Religion[edit]
Roman and Post-Roman Britain[edit]
Under Roman rule, some Britons north of the
Humber

Humber practiced
Christianity. In fact,
York

York had a bishop as early as the fourth
century.[71] After the Romans left Britain in the early fifth century,
Christianity

Christianity did not disappear, [72] but it existed alongside Celtic
paganism,[73] and possibly many other cults.[74]
Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons brought
their own Germanic pagan beliefs and practices when they settled
there. At Yeavering, in Bernicia, excavations have uncovered evidence
of a pagan shrine, animal sacrifice, and ritual burials.[75]
Conversion of the
Anglo-Saxons

Anglo-Saxons to Christianity[edit]
The first
King of Northumbria

King of Northumbria to convert to
Christianity

Christianity was King
Edwin. He was baptized by Paulinus in 627.[76] Shortly thereafter,
many of his people followed his conversion to the new religion, only
to return to paganism when
Edwin

Edwin was killed in 633. Paulinus was
Bishop of York, but only for a year.[77]
The lasting conversion of
Northumbria

Northumbria took place under the guidance of
the Irish cleric Aidan. He converted King
Oswald of Northumbria

Oswald of Northumbria in
635, and then worked to convert the people of Northumbria.[78] King
Oswald moved the bishopric from
York

York to Lindisfarne.[79]
Monasteries and Figures of Note[edit]
The monastery at
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne was founded by Aidan in 635, and based on
the practices of the Columban monastery in Iona, Scotland.[80] The
location of the bishopric shifted to Lindisfarne, and it became the
center for religion in Northumbria. The bishopric would not leave
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne and shift back to its original location at
York

York until
664.[81] Throughout the eighth century,
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne was associated
with important figures. Aidan, the founder, Wilfrid, a student, and
Cuthbert, a member of the order and a hermit, all became bishops and
later Saints. Aidan assisted Heiu to found her double monastery at
Hartlepool.[82] She too came to be venerated as a saint.[83]
The Christian culture of
Northumbria

Northumbria was influenced by the continent
as well as Ireland. In particular,
Wilfrid

Wilfrid traveled to
Rome

Rome and
abandoned the traditions of the
Celtic church

Celtic church in favor of Roman
practices. When he returned to England, he became abbot of a new
monastery at
Ripon

Ripon in 660.
Wilfrid

Wilfrid advocated for Roman
Christianity

Christianity at
the Synod of Whitby. The two halves of the double monastery
Monkwearmouth-
Jarrow

Jarrow were founded by the nobleman
Benedict Biscop

Benedict Biscop in
673 and 681. Biscop became the first abbot of the monastery, and
traveled to
Rome

Rome six times to buy books for the library.[84] His
successor, Abbot Ceolfrith, continued to add to the library until it.
One estimate puts the library at Monkwearmouth-
Jarrow

Jarrow at over two
hundred volumes.[84] One who benefited from this library was Bede.[85]
In the early seventh century in York, Paulinus founded a school and a
minster, but not a monastery. The School at
York

York Minster is one of the
oldest in England.[86] By the late eighth century, the school had a
noteworthy library, estimated at about one hundred volumes.[87] Alcuin
was a student and teacher at
York

York before he left for the court of
Charlemagne

Charlemagne in 782.[88]
Synod of Whitby[edit]
Main article: Synod of Whitby
In 664, King
Oswiu

Oswiu called the
Synod of Whitby

Synod of Whitby to determine whether to
follow Roman or Irish customs. Since
Northumbria

Northumbria was converted to
Christianity

Christianity by the Celtic clergy, the Celtic tradition for
determining the date of
Easter
.jpg)
Easter and Irish tonsure were supported by
many, particularly by the Abbey of Lindisfarne. Roman
Christianity

Christianity was
also represented in Northumbria, by Wilfrid, Abbot of Ripon. By the
year 620, both sides were associating the other’s
Easter
.jpg)
Easter observance
with the Pelagian Heresy.[89] The King decided at Whitby that Roman
practice would be adopted throughout Northumbria, thereby bringing
Northumbria

Northumbria in line with Southern
England

England and Western Europe.[90]
Members of the clergy who refused to conform, including the Celtic
Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne, returned to Iona.[91] The episcopal seat
of
Northumbria

Northumbria transferred from
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne to York, which later
became an archbishopric in 735.[92]
Effects of Scandinavian Attack, Settlement, & Culture on
Religion[edit]
The
Viking

Viking attack on
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne in 793 was the first of many raids on
monasteries of Northumbria. The
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne Gospels survived, but
monastic culture in
Northumbria

Northumbria went into a period of decline in the
early ninth century. Repeated
Viking

Viking assaults on religious centers
were one reason for the decrease in production of manuscripts and
communal monastic culture. [93]
After 867,
Northumbria

Northumbria came under control of the Scandinavian forces,
and there was an influx of Scandinavian immigrants.[94] Their religion
was pagan and had a rich mythology. Within the Kingdom of York, once
the raids and war were over, there is no evidence that the presence of
Scandinavian settlers interrupted Christian practice. It appears that
they gradually adopted
Christianity

Christianity and blended their Scandinavian
culture with their new religion. This can be seen in carved stone
monuments and ring-headed crosses, such as the Gosforth Cross.[95]
During the ninth and tenth centuries, there was an increase in the
number of parish churches, often including stone sculptures
incorporating Scandinavian designs.[96]
Culture[edit]
Page from the
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne Gospels, c 700, featuring zoomorphic
knot-work.
The colophon to the
Gospel of Matthew

Gospel of Matthew from the Durham Gospel Fragment,
featuring non-zoomorphic interlace patterns.
The Book of Kells, (folio 292r), circa 800, showing the lavishly
decorated text that opens the Gospel of John
The Golden Age of Northumbria[edit]
Main article: Northumbria's Golden Age
The Christian culture of Northumbria, fuelled by influences from the
continent and Ireland, promoted a broad range of literary and artistic
works.
Insular Art[edit]
The Irish monks who converted
Northumbria

Northumbria to Christianity, and
established monasteries such as Lindisfarne, brought a style of
artistic and literary production.[97] Eadfrith of
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne produced
the
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne Gospels in an Insular style.[98]
The Irish monks brought with them an ancient Celtic decorative
tradition of curvilinear forms of spirals, scrolls, and doubles
curves. This style was integrated with the abstract ornamentation of
the native pagan Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition, characterized by its
bright coloring and zoomorphic interlace patterns.[99]
Insular art, rich in symbolism and meaning, is characterized by its
concern for geometric design rather than naturalistic representation,
love of flat areas of color, and use of complicated interlace
patterns.[100] All of these elements appear in the
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne Gospels
(early eighth century). The Insular style was eventually imported to
the European continent, exercising great influence on the art of the
Carolingian empire.[101]
Sword pommel from the Bedale Hoard, inlaid with gold foil.
Usage of the Insular style was not limited to manuscript production
and metalwork. It can be seen in and sculpture, such as the Ruthwell
Cross and Bewcastle Cross. The devastating
Viking

Viking raid on Lindisfarne
in 793 marked the beginning of a century of
Viking

Viking invasions that
severely limited the production and survival of Anglo-Saxon material
culture.[102] It heralded the end of Northumbria's position as a
center of influence, although in the years immediately following
visually rich works like the
Easby Cross

Easby Cross were still being produced.
Literature[edit]
The Venerable
Bede

Bede (673–735) is the most famous author of the
Anglo-Saxon Period, and a native of Northumbria. His Historia
ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English
People, completed in 731) has become both a template for later
historians and a crucial historical account in its own right[103], and
much of it focuses on Northumbria.[104][105] He's also famous for his
theological works, and verse and prose accounts of holy
lives[106].After the Synod of Whitby, the role of the European
continent gained importance in Northumbrian culture. During the end of
the eighth century, the scriptorium at Monkwearmouth-
Jarrow

Jarrow was
producing manuscripts of his works for high demand on the
Continent.[107]
Northumbria

Northumbria was also home to several Anglo-Saxon Christian poets.
Cædmon
Jul2006.jpg/440px-MemorialToCaedmon(RichardThomas)Jul2006.jpg)
Cædmon lived at the double monastery of Streonæshalch (Whitby Abbey)
during the abbacy (657–680) of St. Hilda (614–680). According to
Bede, he "was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was
interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into
poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in English, which
was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often
excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven."[108] His sole
surviving work is Cædmon's Hymn. Cynewulf, prolific author of The
Fates of the Apostles, Juliana, Elene, and Christ II, is believed to
have been either Northumbrian or Mercian[109][110].
Gosforth Cross, view from the north west
Scandinavians and the Danelaw[edit]
From around 800, there had been waves of Danish raids on the
coastlines of the British Isles[111]. These raids terrorized the
populace, but exposure to Danish society brought new opportunities for
wealth and trade[112]. In 865, instead of raiding, the Danes landed a
large army in East Anglia, and had conquered a territory known as the
Danelaw, including Northumbria, by 867.[111][113] At first, the
Scandinavian minority, while politically powerful, remained culturally
distinct from the English populace. For example, only a few
Scandinavian words, mostly military and technical, became part of Old
English. By the early 900s, however, Scandinavian-style names for both
people and places became increasingly popular, as did Scandinavian
ornamentation on works of art, featuring aspects of Norse mythology,
and figures of animals and warriors. Nevertheless, sporadic references
to "danes" in charters, chronicles, and laws indicate that during the
lifetime of the Kingdom of Northumbria, most inhabitants of northeast
England

England did not consider themselves Danish, and were not perceived as
such by other Anglo-Saxons.[114]
The synthesis of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian and Christian and Pagan
visual motifs within the
Danelaw

Danelaw can be illustrated by an examination
of stone sculpture. However, the tradition of mixing pagan and
Christian motifs is not unique to the Danelaw, and examples of such
synthesis can be seen in previous examples, such as the Franks Casket.
The Franks Casket, believed to have been produced in Northumbria,
includes depictions of Germanic legends and stories of the founding
Roman and the Roman Church and is dated to the early eighth
century.[115] The Gosforth Cross, dated to the early tenth century,
stands at 4.4 meters and is richly decorated with carvings of mythical
beasts, Norse gods, and Christian symbolism.[116] Stone sculpture was
not a practice of native Scandinavian culture, and the proliferation
of stone monuments within the
Danelaw

Danelaw shows the influence that the
English had on
Viking

Viking settlers. On one side of the Gosforth Cross is a
depiction of the Crucifixion; whilst on the other are scenes from
Ragnarok. The melding of these distinctive religious cultures can
further be seen in the depiction of Mary Magdalene as a valkyrie, with
a trailing dress and long pigtail.[117] Although one can read the
iconography as the triumph of
Christianity

Christianity over paganism, it is
possible that in the process of the Christianization (as distinct from
conversion) the
Vikings

Vikings might have initially accepted the Christian
god as an addition to the broad pantheon of Pagan gods.[118] The
inclusion of pagan traditions in visual culture reflects the creation
of a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian culture. Consequently, this
indicates that conversion not only required a change in belief, but
also necessitated its assimilation, integration, and modification into
existing cultural structures.[119]
Economy[edit]
Silver coin of
Aldfrith of Northumbria

Aldfrith of Northumbria (686–705). OBVERSE:
+AldFRIdUS, pellet-in-annulet; REVERSE: Lion with forked tail standing
left.
Northumbria's economy centered around agriculture, with livestock and
land being popular units of value in local trade[120]. By the mid
800s, the
Open field system

Open field system was likely the pre-eminent mode of
farming. Like much of eastern England,
Northumbria

Northumbria exported grain,
silver, hides, and slaves[121]. Imports from Frankia included Oil,
luxury goods, and clerical supplies in the 700s[122][123][124].
Especially after 793, raids, gifts, and trade with Scandinavians
resulted in substantial economic ties across the North Sea.
When coinage (as opposed to bartering) regained popularity in the late
600s, Northumbrian coins featured kings' names, indicating royal
control of currency. Royal currency was unique in Britain for a long
time. King Aldfrith (685–705) minted Northumbria's earliest silver
coins, likely in York. Later royal coinage bears the name of King
Eadberht (738–758), as well as his brother, archbishop Ecgbert of
York[125]. Later kings and archbishops minted coins until the Danish
conquest of
York

York in 866/7. [126] These coins were primarily small
silver sceattas, more suitable to small, everyday transactions than
larger gold Frankish or Roman coins.[127] They were not a fiat
currency, but rather valued by the mass of the silver itself. Larger
bullion values can be seen in the silver ingots found in the Bedale
Hoard, along with sword fittings and necklaces in gold and
silver.[128]
Language[edit]
See also:
Old English

Old English § Dialects
In the time of Bede, there were four vernacular languages in
Northumbria: those of the Britons, Scots, Picts, and Northumbrian, and
Latin.[129] Northumbrian was one of four distinct dialects of Old
English, along with Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish.[130] Analysis of
written texts, brooches, runes and other available sources shows that
Northumbrian vowel pronunciation differed from West Saxon.[131] The
text of the Northumbrian Gloss of the
Lindisfarne

Lindisfarne Gospel shows signs
of anticipating grammar changes which occur in Middle English.[132]
One cause of change is language contact. In addition to the five
languages present in Bede’s day,
Old Norse

Old Norse was added during the
period of Scandinavian rule in the ninth century. Vocabulary, syntax,
and grammar of the Scandinavians in
Northumbria

Northumbria had an influence on
the dialect. Similarities in basic vocabulary between
Old English

Old English and
Old Norse

Old Norse may have led to dropping of their different inflectional
endings.[133] The number of borrowed words is conservatively estimated
to be on order of one thousand.[134] The language of the Celtic
Britons was evident in place names in Northumbria.
Deira

Deira and Bernicia
in particular derive their names from Celtic tribal origins.[135]
See also[edit]
Anglo-Saxon
England

England portal
History of Northumberland
Northumbria's golden age
Northumbrian music
Northumbrian smallpipes
Northumbrian tartan
English of Northumbria
Geordie dialect words
Footnotes[edit]
^ In addition to
Bernicia

Bernicia and Deira, some other British place names
are recorded for important Northumbrian locations. Northumbrian
scholar
Bede

Bede (c. 731) and Welsh chronicler
Nennius (ninth-century)
both provide British place names for centers of power. Nennius, for
example, refers to the royal city of
Bamburgh

Bamburgh as Din Guaire.
[6][7][8][5]
^ Although the Northumbrian king Eric was conflated with King Eric
Bloodaxe of Norway in Icelandic sagas, Clare Downham and others have
recently argued that the two were separate people. For a discussion of
this shift in identification, see Downham, Clare 2004 "Eric Bloodaxe
– Axed? The Mystery of the Last Scandinavian King of York", Medieval
Scandinavia, vol. 14, pp. 51–77
Notes[edit]
^
Bede

Bede 1898 Book I, chapter 34
^ Bosworth 1898, p. 725
^ http://www.northumbrianassociation.com/
^ Rollason 2003, p. 44
^ a b Rollason 2003, p. 81
^
Bede

Bede 1969 Book IV Chapter 19
^
Nennius 2005 para 62
^ Higham 1993, p. 81
^ Hope-Taylor 1983, pp. 15–16
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 83–84
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book II, Chapter 14
^
Bede

Bede 2008, p. 93
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 57–64
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book I, Chapter 15
^ Rollason 2003, p. 100
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 45–48
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 48–52
^ Yorke 1990, p. 74
^
Nennius 2005 para 57, 59
^
Nennius 2005 para 59
^ a b Yorke 1990, p. 79
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book II, Chapter 1
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book II, Chapter 12
^ a b c d e Rollason 2003, p. 7
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book III, Chapter 6
^
Bede

Bede 1983 The Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert, Bishop of
Lindisfarne, cap. 24
^ Swanton 1996 793
^ Rollason 2003, p. 211
^ a b c Rollason 2003, p. 212
^ Swanton 1996 865
^ Swanton 1996 866–867
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 212–213
^ Fleming 2010, p. 270
^ Rollason 2003, p. 213
^ Downham 2004 reconsiders the Northumbrian
Viking

Viking king known as Eric
and his perhaps tenuous relationship to the
Eric Bloodaxe

Eric Bloodaxe of the
sagas.
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 213,244
^ Rollason 2003, p. 244
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 246–257
^ Fleming 2010, p. 319
^ Arnold 1885
^ Higham 1993, p. 183
^ Rollason 2003, p. 249
^ Arnold 1885 867, 872
^ Swanton 1996 874
^ Higham 1993, p. 181
^ Rollason 2003, p. 249 For the epithet, see also the Annals of
Ulster.
^ Kirby 1991, pp. 60–61
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book I chapter 34
^
Bede

Bede 2008 II.9–14
^ Higham 1993, p. 124
^
Bede

Bede 2008 II.20, III.24
^
Bede

Bede 2008 III.1–13
^ Yorke 1990, p. 78-9
^ Yorke 1990
^
Bede

Bede 2008 IV.5
^ Venning 2014, p. 132
^ Munch & Olsen 1926, p. 245-251
^ Stevenson 1885, p. 489
^ Lapidge et al. 2013, p. 526
^ Foot 2011, p. 40
^ Foot 2011, p. 40
^ Sturluson 1911, p. 42-43
^ Swanton 1996 MS D 940
^ Swanton 1996 MS D & E 954
^ Arnold 1885 952
^ Petts 2011, pp. 14–27
^ Downham 2007, pp. 40
^ Petts 2011, p. 27
^ Higham 1993, pp. 81–90
^ Fairless 1994, pp. 10–16
^ Clutton-Brock 1899, p. 6
^ Corning 2006, p. 65
^ MacLean 1997, pp. 88–89
^ Fleming 2010, pp. 132–133
^ Fleming 2010, p. 102
^
Bede

Bede 2008, p. 96
^ Rollason 2003, p. 207
^
Bede

Bede 2008III. 5
^ Rollason 2003, p. 207
^ Fleming 2010, p. 156
^ Rollason 2003, p. 207
^ Fleming 2010, p. 171
^ Butler 1866Volume IX September 6
^ a b Lapidge 2006, p. 35
^
Bede

Bede 2008, pp. viii–ix
^ Leach 1915, pp. 41
^ Lapidge 2006, p. 41
^ Lapidge 2006, p. 40
^ Corning 2006, p. 114
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book III chapter 25–26
^
Bede

Bede 2008 Book III chapter 25–26
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 239
^ Fleming 2010, p. 318
^ Higham 1993, p. 178
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 237–239
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 239
^ Neuman de Vegvar 1990
^ Rollason 2003, pp. 140
^ "Anglo-Saxon art". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2016.
^ "Hiberno-Saxon style". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 13
May 2016.
^ Otto 1986, p. 72-73
^ Owen-Crocker 1986, p. 28
^ Wormald 1999, p. 29
^ Goffart 2005, p. 238
^
Bede

Bede 1969
^ Goffart 1988, p. 245-246
^ Lapidge 2006, p. 44
^
Bede

Bede 1969 Book 4 Chapter 24
^ Gradon 1958, p. 9-14
^ Woolf 1955, p. 2-6
^ a b Swanton 1996 865
^ Fleming 2010, pp. 213–240
^
Roger of Wendover 1842, pp. 298–299
^ Hadley 2002
^ Karkov 2011, pp. 149–152
^ Berg 1958, pp. 27–30
^ Richards 1991, pp. 121
^ Richards 1991, pp. 123
^ Carver 2005, pp. 36
^ Sawyer 2013, p. 1-4
^ Sawyer 2013, p. 33
^ Sawyer 2013, p. 64-67
^ Allot 1974
^ Alcuinus 2006
^ Wood 2008, p. 28
^ Sawyer 2013, p. 76-77
^ Sawyer 2013, p. 34
^ Ager 2012
^
Bede

Bede 1990, pp. 152
^ Baugh 2002, pp. 71
^ Cuesta, Ledesma & Silva 2008, pp. 140
^ Baugh 2002, pp. 160
^ Baugh 2002, pp. 103
^ Baugh 2002, pp. 95
^ Baugh 2002, pp. 75
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External links[edit]
Lowlands-L, An e-mail discussion list for those who share an interest
in the languages & cultures of the Lowlands
Lowlands-L in Nothumbrian
Northumbrian Association
Northumbrian Language Society
Northumbrian Small Pipes Encyclopedia
Northumbrian Traditional Music
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Kingdoms and subdivisions of Anglo-Saxon England
Kingdoms
East Anglia
Essex
Kent
Mercia
Northumbria
Bernicia
Deira
Sussex
Wessex
Lesser kingdoms
Wiht
Meonwara
Surrey
Lindsey
Hwicce
Magonsæte
Pencersæte
Pecsæte
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Tomsæte
Haestingas
Gyrwas
Southumbrians
Minor Anglo-Saxon
tribes and fiefs
Ælfingas
Æbbingas
Godhelmingas
Arosæte
Beormingas
Bilsæte
Brahhingas
Duddensæte
Cilternsæte
Eorlingas
Husmerae
Gaini
Sunningas
Brycgstowl
Banesbyrig
Lindisfaras
Woccingas
Nox-gaga and Oht-gaga
Middle Saxons
Middle Angles
North Mercians
Duddaæte
Gyrwas
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Snotingas
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Sweordora
Tewingas
Westerne
Elmetsæte
Gewisse
Rēadingas
Weorgoran
Sumorsaete
Waeclingas
Haueringas
Ytenes
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Monarchs of Northumbria
Kings of
Deira

Deira and Bernicia
604–642
Æthelfrith
Eadwine
Oswald
Kings of Northumbria
642–867
Oswiu
Ecgfrith
Ealdfrith
Eadwulf I
Osred I
Coenred
Osric
Ceolwulf
Eadberht
Oswulf
Æthelwald Moll
Ealhred
Æthelred I
Ælfwald I
Osred II
Osbald
Eardwulf
Ælfwald II
Eanred
Æthelred II
Redwulf
Osberht
Ælla
Kings of
Viking

Viking Northumbria
867–954
Ecgberht
Ricsige
Halfdan I
Guthfrith I
Siefredus
Cnut
Æthelwold
Airdeconut
Eowils
Halfdan II
Ingwær
Ragnall I
Sitric I Caech
Guthfrith II
Olaf I Guthfrithson
Sitric II
Olaf II Cuaran
Ragnall II Guthfrithson
Eric Bloodaxe
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Yorkshire
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Northumbria
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On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at
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Coordinates: 55°00′N 2°30′W / 55.000°N 2.500°W /
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