John Woolman (October 19, 1720 ( O.S.)/October 30, 1720 ( N.S.)– October 7, 1772) was an American merchant, tailor, journalist,

Quaker Quakers are people who belong to a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations known formally as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belief in each human's abili ...

preacher A preacher is a person who delivers sermons or homilies on religious topics to an assembly of people. Less common are preachers who preach on the street, or those whose message is not necessarily religious, but who preach components such as ...

, and early

abolitionist Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people. The British ...

during the colonial era. Based in Mount Holly, near

Philadelphia Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Since ...

, he traveled through the

American frontier The American frontier, also known as the Old West or the Wild West, encompasses the geography, history, folklore, and culture associated with the forward wave of American expansion in mainland North America that began with European colonial ...

to preach Quaker beliefs, and advocate against

slavery Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...

and the

slave trade Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...

cruelty to animals Cruelty to animals, also called animal abuse, animal neglect or animal cruelty, is the infliction by omission (neglect) or by commission by humans of suffering or harm upon non-human animals. More narrowly, it can be the causing of harm or suf ...

, economic injustices and oppression, and

conscription Conscription (also called the draft in the United States) is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service. Conscription dates back to Ancient history, antiquity and it continues in some countries to th ...

. Beginning in 1755 with the outbreak of the

French and Indian War The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the st ...

, he urged

tax resistance Tax resistance is the refusal to pay tax because of opposition to the government that is imposing the tax, or to government policy, or as opposition to taxation in itself. Tax resistance is a form of direct action and, if in violation of the ta ...

to deny support to the colonial military. In 1772, Woolman traveled to England, where he urged Quakers to support abolition of slavery. Woolman published numerous essays, especially against slavery. He kept a journal throughout his life; it was published posthumously, entitled ''

The Journal of John Woolman ''The Journal of John Woolman'' is an autobiography by John Woolman which was published posthumously in 1774 by Joseph Crukshank, a Philadelphia Quaker printer. Woolman's journal is one of the longest continually published books in North America si ...

'' (1774). Included in Volume I of the

Harvard Classics ''The Harvard Classics'', originally marketed as Dr. Eliot's Five-Foot Shelf of Books, is a 50-volume series of classic works of world literature, important speeches, and historical documents compiled and edited by Harvard University President Ch ...

since 1909, it is considered a prominent American spiritual work. It has also been admired for the power and clarity of its prose by non-Quakers such as the philosopher

John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873) was an English philosopher, political economist, Member of Parliament (MP) and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of classical liberalism, he contributed widely to ...

, the poet

William Ellery Channing William Ellery Channing (April 7, 1780 – October 2, 1842) was the foremost Unitarian preacher in the United States in the early nineteenth century and, along with Andrews Norton (1786–1853), one of Unitarianism's leading theologians. Channi ...

, and the essayist

Charles Lamb Charles Lamb (10 February 1775 – 27 December 1834) was an English essayist, poet, and antiquarian, best known for his '' Essays of Elia'' and for the children's book '' Tales from Shakespeare'', co-authored with his sister, Mary Lamb (1764� ...

, who urged a friend to "get the writings of John Woolman by heart." The ''Journal'' has been continuously in print since 1774, published in numerous editions; the most recent scholarly edition was published in 1989.

Biography

Early life

John Woolman was born in 1720, originally from

Rancocas, New Jersey Rancocas is an unincorporated community located within Westampton Township in Burlington County, New Jersey. The name derives from the Native American word ''Rankokous.'' which was used in the name of the Powhatan Lenape Nation Indian Reservation ...

, into a family who were members of the

Religious Society of Friends Quakers are people who belong to a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations known formally as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belief in each human's abili ...

(

Quakers Quakers are people who belong to a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations known formally as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belief in each human's abili ...

). His father Samuel Woolman was a farmer. Their estate lay between Burlington and Mount Holly Township in the New Jersey colony, near the

Delaware River The Delaware River is a major river in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. From the meeting of its branches in Hancock, New York, the river flows for along the borders of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, before ...

. Woolman's maternal and paternal grandparents were early Quaker settlers in

Burlington County, New Jersey Burlington County is a county in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The county is the largest by area in New Jersey. Its county seat is Mount Holly.

. During his youth, he happened upon a robin's nest that held hatchlings. Woolman began throwing rocks at the mother robin to see if he could hit her. After killing the mother bird, he was filled with remorse, thinking of the baby birds who had no chance of survival without her. He got the nest down from the tree and quickly killed the hatchlings, believing it to be the most merciful thing to do. This experience weighed on his heart. He was inspired to love and protect all living things from then on. Woolman married Sarah Ellis, a fellow Quaker, in a ceremony at the Chesterfield Friends Meeting, and they had a daughter whom they named Mary. His choice to lead a "life of simplicity" meant making sacrifices for his family.

Career

As a young man, Woolman began work as a clerk for a merchant. When he was 23, his employer asked him to write a bill of sale for an enslaved person. Though he told his employer that he thought that slaveholding was inconsistent with

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...

, he wrote the bill of sale. By the age of 26, he had become an independent and successful tradesman. He refused to write the part of another customer's will which would have bequeathed or transferred the ownership of a slave, and instead convinced the owner to set the enslaved person free by

manumission Manumission, or enfranchisement, is the act of freeing enslaved people by their enslavers. Different approaches to manumission were developed, each specific to the time and place of a particular society. Historian Verene Shepherd states that t ...

. Many Friends (fellow Quakers) believed that slavery was a sin. Other Friends kept slaves but considered trading in slaves to be sinful. Woolman eventually retired from business (i.e., "merchandising") because he viewed profit-making as distracting from his religion. He wrote that he took up the trade of tailor in order to have more free time to travel and witness to fellow Quakers about his concerns.

Testimony of Simplicity

Woolman was committed to the Friends' Testimony of Simplicity. While in his 20s, he decided that the retail trade demanded too much of his time. He believed he had a calling to preach "truth and light" among Friends and others. In his ''Journal'', he said that he quit the shop as it was "attended with much outward care and cumber," that his "mind was weaned from the desire of outward greatness," and that "where the heart is set on greatness, success in business did not satisfy the craving." Woolman gave up his career as a tradesman and supported himself as a tailor; he also maintained a productive orchard. He addressed issues of economic injustice and oppression in his ''Journal'' and other writings, and knew international trade had local effects. Despite supporting himself as a tailor, Woolman refused to use or wear dyed fabrics, because he had learned that many workers in the dye industry were poisoned by some of the noxious substances used. Concerned about treatment of animals, in later life, Woolman avoided riding in stagecoaches, for he believed operators were too often cruel and injurious to the teams of horses. Woolman decided to minister to Friends and others in remote areas on the frontier. In 1746, he went on his first ministry trip with Isaac Andrews. They traveled about 1,500 miles round-trip in three months, going as far south as

North Carolina North Carolina () is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 28th largest and List of states and territories of the United ...

. He preached on many topics, including slavery, during this and other such trips.

Anti-slavery activities

In 1754 Woolman published ''Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes''. He continued to refuse to draw up wills that bequeathed ownership of slaves to heirs. Over time, and working on a personal level, he individually convinced many Quaker slaveholders to free their slaves. As Woolman traveled, when he accepted hospitality from a slaveholder, he insisted on paying the slaves for their work in attending him. He refused to be served with silver cups, plates, and utensils, as he believed that slaves in other regions were forced to dig such precious minerals and gems for the rich. He observed that some owners used the labor of their slaves to enjoy lives of ease, which he found to be the worst situation not only for the slaves but for the moral and spiritual condition of the owners. He could condone those owners who treated their slaves gently or worked alongside them. Woolman worked within the Friends' tradition of seeking the guidance of the Spirit of Christ and patiently waiting to achieve unity in the Spirit. As he went from one friend's meeting to another, he expressed his concern about slaveholding. Gradually various Quaker Meetings began to see the evils of slavery; their minutes increasingly reflecting their condemnation of the practice. Quaker records bear witness to his and a few others' success – by the time the 1776–1783 revolution was over, almost all North American Quakers had freed their slaves, and those few Quakers who had been engaged in the trading or shipment of slaves had ceased such activities as well.

Testimony of Peace

He lived out the Friends' Peace Testimony by protesting the

(1754–1763), the North American front of the

Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754 ...

. In 1755, he decided to oppose paying those colonial taxes that supported the war and urged

among fellow Quakers in the Philadelphia Meeting, even at a time when American settlers on the frontier were being raided by French and allied Native Americans. Some Quakers joined him in his protest, and the Meeting sent a letter on this issue to other groups. In one of his prophetic dreams, recorded in his ''Journal'', Woolman negotiated between two heads of state in an effort to prevent an outbreak of war.

Vegetarianism

Woolman was a

vegetarian Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetariani ...

.Helstosky, Carol. (2015). ''The Routledge History of Food''. Routledge. p. 180. His brother once asked him to dine on poultry, to which Woolman replied: "What, would you have me eat my neighbors?" He opposed the overworking of draft animals and avoided stage-coaches as he believed the horses were abused. Woolman commented that "true religion consisted in an inward life, wherein the heart doth love and reverence God the Creator, and learns to exercise true justice and goodness not only toward all men, but also toward the brute creatures."

Final days

Woolman's final journey was to England in 1772. During the voyage he stayed in

steerage Steerage is a term for the lowest category of passenger accommodation in a ship. In the nineteenth and early twentieth century considerable numbers of persons travelled from their homeland to seek a new life elsewhere, in many cases North America ...

and spent time with the crew, rather than in the better accommodations enjoyed by some passengers. He attended the British

London Yearly Meeting The Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain, also known as the Britain Yearly Meeting (and, until 1995, the London Yearly Meeting), is a Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers) in England, ...

. The Friends resolved to include an abolitionist statement in their

Epistle An epistle (; el, ἐπιστολή, ''epistolē,'' "letter") is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people, usually an elegant and formal didactic letter. The epistle genre of letter-writing was common in ancient Egypt as par ...

(a type of letter sent to Quakers in other places). Woolman traveled to York, but he had contracted

smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...

and died there. He was buried in York on October 9, 1772. There is strong doubt whether the portrait shown here (and very often elsewhere) can be of John Woolman. (Janet Whitney in John Woolman, Quaker, 1943 re. AM Gummere's Journal and Essays of John Woolman, 1922.) There is no known depiction of John Woolman but the authentic silhouette of his brother Uriah shows a very different face to this elderly, wizened subject.

Published works

*Essays **"Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes", 1753 **"Some Considerations on Keeping Negroes, Part Second", 1762 **"Considerations on Pure Wisdom and Human Policy, on Labor, on Schools, and on the Right Use of the Lord's Outward Gifts", 1768 **"Considerations on the True Harmony of Mankind, and How it is to be Maintained", 1770 *Books **''

'', published posthumously in 1774 by Joseph Crukshank, a Philadelphia Quaker printer. Several subsequent editions are available, including the respected Whittier edition of 1871. The modern standard scholarly edition is ''The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman,'' ed., Phillips P. Moulton, Friends United Press, 1989. **''Serious Considerations on Various Subjects of Importance by John Woolman, of Mount-Holly, New-Jersey, with some of his dying expressions,'' published posthumously in 1805 by Collins, Perkins and Co., New York. **Gummere, Amelia Mott (1922). ''The Journal and Essays of John Woolman''. New York: The Macmillan Company. **Proud, James, ed. (2010). ''John Woolman and the Affairs of Truth: the Journalist's Essays, Epistles, and Ephemera.'' San Francisco, CA: Inner Light Books

Legacy and honors

In his lifetime, Woolman did not succeed in eradicating slavery even within the Society of Friends in colonial America. However, his personal efforts helped change Quaker viewpoints during the period of the

Great Awakening Great Awakening refers to a number of periods of religious revival in American Christian history. Historians and theologians identify three, or sometimes four, waves of increased religious enthusiasm between the early 18th century and the lat ...

. In 1790, after the

American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...

, the Pennsylvania Society of Friends petitioned the United States Congress for the abolition of slavery. While unsuccessful at the national level, Quakers contributed to Pennsylvania's abolition of slavery. In addition, in the first two decades after the war, they were active together with Methodist and Baptist preachers in the Upper South in persuading many slaveholders to manumit their slaves. The percentage of free people of color rose markedly during those decades, for instance, from less than one to nearly ten percent in Virginia. *The "fair treatment of people of all races" is today an integral part of the Friends' Testimony of Equality. John Woolman House 1

*The ''Journal of John Woolman'' has been included since the first year of publication in 1909 in Volume I of ''The

,'' together with

Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading int ...

's '' His Autobiography'' and

William Penn William Penn ( – ) was an English writer and religious thinker belonging to the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), and founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, a North American colony of England. He was an early advocate of democracy a ...

's '' Fruits of Solitude.'' This was published by P.F. Collier and Sons of New York. Woolman's Journal is considered a prominent American spiritual work and is the longest-published book in the history of North America other than the Bible, having been continuously in print since 1774. *The John Woolman Memorial Association was formed in Mount Holly to promote his teachings. It sponsors an annual lecture and has published a volume of Woolman genealogy, with additional volumes planned.John Woolman Memorial
John Woolman Memorial Association website *The John Woolman Memorial in

Mount Holly, New Jersey Mount Holly is a township that is the county seat of Burlington County in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It is an eastern suburb of Philadelphia, the nation's sixth largest city as of 2020, As of the 2020 U.S. census, the township's population w ...

is located near one of his former orchards. A brick house built between 1771 and 1783, reportedly for one of Woolman's daughters and her husband, it is operated as a house museum and memorial. The Memorial's parent organization also compiles an ongoing genealogical study of Woolman's descendants; notable among them are actor

Christopher Reeve Christopher D'Olier Reeve (September 25, 1952 – October 10, 2004) was an American actor, best known for playing the title character in the film '' Superman'' (1978) and three sequels. Born in New York City and raised in Princeton, New Jersey ...

and Collett Everman Woolman, a pioneer and innovator of air mail and aerial crop-dusting, and founder of Delta Airlines. *1963, the John Woolman School was founded in his honor in

Nevada City, California Nevada City (originally, ''Ustumah'', a Nisenan village; later, Nevada, Deer Creek Dry Diggins, and Caldwell's Upper Store) is the county seat of Nevada County, California, United States, northeast of Sacramento, southwest of Reno and northea ...

as a college-preparatory boarding school, serving students in grades 10–12. * The Woolman Institute was established at Wilmington College during the 1980s. *2003, a group of scholars of peace and justice studies founded the John Woolman College of Active Peace, which seeks to 'mainstream' many Quaker (and other) concepts of peace and peacemaking into higher education.John Woolman College
, website

Footnotes

External links

John Woolman, ''The Journal of John Woolman''
in Vol. I, ''The Harvard Classics'', New York: P.F. Collier and Sons, 1909 edition, online e-text (1994) at University of Virginia Library
"John Woolman, Quintessential Quaker"
review, Quaker Info website

bio
Woolman Central
John Woolman Memorial Association official website
John Woolman College of Active Peace
educational consortium dedicated to teaching Woolman's Theory of Active Peace
"Excerpts from 'The Journal of John Woolman'", 1872 edition
''The Picket Line:'' tax resistance website, primary documents and excerpts * * * *
A Clear Leading
a one-man play written and performed by Rich Swingle {{DEFAULTSORT:Woolman, John 1720 births 1772 deaths 18th-century Christian mystics American abolitionists American animal rights activists American tax resisters American Quakers American vegetarianism activists Deaths from smallpox Quaker ministers Quaker theologians People from Mount Holly, New Jersey American Christian pacifists Infectious disease deaths in England Protestant mystics People of colonial New Jersey Burials in North Yorkshire Quaker abolitionists