Jianghu
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''Jianghu'' () is a term that generally refers to the milieu, environment, or sub-community in which many
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
wuxia ( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fiction, its popularity has caused it to be adapted f ...
stories are set. The term is used flexibly, and can be used to describe a fictionalized version of
Historical China The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the ''Book of Documents'' (early chapter ...
(usually using loose influences from across the ~1000 BCE–280 AD period); a setting of feuding
martial arts Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; combat sport, competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; a ...
clans and the people of that community; a secret and possibly criminal underworld; a general sense of the "mythic world" where fantastical stories happen; or some combination thereof.


Background

In modern Chinese culture, ''jianghu'' is commonly accepted as an alternative universe coexisting with the actual historical one in which the context of the wuxia genre was set. Unlike the normal world, in the ''jianghu'' ''
xia Xia (Hsia in Wade–Giles) may refer to: Chinese history * Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC), the first orthodox dynasty in Chinese history * Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms) (407–431), a Xiongnu-led dynasty * Xia (617–621), a state founded by Dou Ji ...
'' (wanderers, knight-errants) are free to act on their own initiative, including with violence, to punish evil and foes, and to reward goodness and allies. While the term literally means "rivers and lakes", it is broader than that: roads, inns, bandit lairs, deserted temples, and the wilderness are all classic places associated with the ''jianghu'', places far from government interference.
Vigilante Vigilantism () is the act of preventing, investigating and punishing perceived offenses and crimes without Right, legal authority. A vigilante (from Spanish, Italian and Portuguese “vigilante”, which means "sentinel" or "watcher") is a pers ...
ism is normal and accepted in a way that would be impermissible in a more realistic setting. Different wuxia novels have their own versions of the ''jianghu'' and its implications. Authors vary on whether they have one consistent setting or reinvest the ''jianghu'' in each work;
Jin Yong Louis Cha Leung-yung (; 10 March 1924 – 30 October 2018), better known by his pen name Jin Yong (), pronounced "Gum Yoong" in Cantonese, was a Chinese wuxia (" martial arts and chivalry") novelist and essayist who co-founded the Hong Kong d ...
's ''
Condor Trilogy The ''Condor Trilogy'' (射鵰三部曲) is a series of three wuxia novels written by Hong Kong-based Chinese writer Jin Yong (Louis Cha). The series is amongst the most popular of Jin Yong's works. The novels in the trilogy are: * ''The Legend ...
'' has one continuity, whereas
Gu Long Xiong Yaohua (7 June 1938 – 21 September 1985), better known by his pen name Gu Long, was a Hong Kong-born Taiwanese novelist, screenwriter, film producer and director. A graduate of Cheng Kung Senior High School and Tamkang University, Xion ...
's ''jianghu'' would be distinct in every novel, for two examples. One of the most notable sources for helping define what would be thought of as the ''jianghu'' was the 14th century novel ''
Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is s ...
''. In it, a band of noble outlaws, who mounted regular sorties in an attempt to right the wrongs of corrupt officials, have retreated to their hideout. These bandits were called the ''Chivalrous men of the Green Forests'' (). The outlaws then proceed to have various adventures, mixing heroism with more roguish activities. One of the earliest coinage of ''jianghu'' was by a dejected poet
Fan Zhongyan Fan Zhongyan (5 September 989 – 19 June 1052) from Wu County of Suzhou (Jiangsu Province, China), courtesy name Xiwen (), ratified as the Duke of Wenzheng () posthumously, and conferred as Duke of Chu () posthumously, was a Chinese poet, po ...
(989—1052) in the
Song Dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
in his poem '' Yueyang Lou Ji'' (岳阳楼记), in which the context of ''jianghu'' was set out as distant to the courts and temples, meaning a world in its own right.


Evolving interpretations of the term ''jianghu''

The meaning of the term ''jianghu'' has evolved over the course of Chinese history, but usually refers to the martial arts world of ancient China. First coined by
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to: * ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism **Zhuang Zhou Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
in the late 4th century BC, it referred to a way of life different from that of being actively involved in politics. At the time, it referred to the way of life of underachieving or maligned
scholar-official The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
s who distanced themselves from the circles of political power. In this sense, ''jianghu'' could be loosely interpreted as the way of life of a hermit. Over the centuries, ''jianghu'' gained greater acceptance among the common people and gradually became a term for a sub-society parallel to, and sometimes orthogonal to, mainstream society. This sub-society initially included merchants, craftsmen, beggars and vagabonds, but over time it assimilated bandits, outlaws and gangs who lived "outside the existing law". During the
Song A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetitio ...
and Yuan dynasties, bards and novelists began using the term ''jianghu'' in the process of creating literature covering a fictional society of adventurers and rebels who lived not by existing societal laws, but by their own moral principles or extralegal code of conduct. The core of these moral principles encompassed ''xia'' (), ''yi'' (), ''li'' (), ''zhong'' () and ''chou'' (). Stories in this genre bloomed and enriched various interpretations of ''jianghu''. At the same time, the term ''jianghu'' also developed intricate interconnections with gang culture because of outlaws' mutually shared distaste towards governments. The inclusion of martial arts as a feature of ''jianghu'' was a recent development in the early 20th century. Novelists started creating a fantasy world of ''jianghu'' in which characters are martial artists and in which the characters' enforcement of righteousness is symbolised by conflicts between different martial artists or martial arts sects and the ultimate triumph of good over evil. Martial arts became a tool used by characters in a ''jianghu'' story to enforce their moral beliefs. On the other hand, there are characters who become corrupted by power derived from their formidable prowess in martial arts and end up abandoning their morality in their pursuit of power. Around this time, the term ''jianghu'' became closely related to a similar term, ''wulin'' (), which referred exclusively to a community of martial artists. This fantasy world of ''jianghu'' remains as the mainstream definition of ''jianghu'' in modern Chinese popular culture, particularly wuxia culture.


Current interpretations of the term ''jianghu''

The following description focuses more on the martial arts aspect of ''jianghu'', its well-established social norms, and its close relation with wulin. A common aspect of ''jianghu'' is that the courts of law are dysfunctional and that all disputes and differences (within the community) can only be resolved by members of the community, through the use of mediation, negotiation or force, predicating the need for the code of ''xia'' and acts of chivalry. Law and order within the ''jianghu'' are maintained by the various orthodox and righteous sects and heroes. Sometimes these sects may gather to form an alliance against a powerful evil organisation in the ''jianghu''. A leader, called the ''wulin mengzhu'' (武林盟主; literally "master of the wulin alliance"), is elected from among the sects in order to lead them and ensure law and order within the ''jianghu''. The leader is usually someone with a high level of mastery in martial arts and a great reputation for righteousness who is often involved in some conspiracy and/or killed. In some stories, the leader may not be the greatest martial artist in the ''jianghu''; in other stories, the position of the leader is hereditary. The leader is an arbiter who presides and adjudicates over all inequities and disputes. The leader is a ''de jure'' chief justice of the affairs of the ''jianghu''.


Relationship with the government

Members of the ''jianghu'' are also expected to keep their distance from any government offices or officials, without necessarily being antagonistic. It was acceptable for ''jianghu'' members who are respectable members of society (usually owning properties or big businesses) to maintain respectful but formal and passive relationships with the officials, such as paying due taxes and attending local community events. Even then, they are expected to shield any fugitives from the law, or at the least not to turn over fugitives to the officials. Local officials who are savvier would know better than to expect co-operation from ''jianghu'' members and would refrain from seeking help except to apprehend the worst and most notorious criminals. If the crimes also violated some of the moral tenets of ''jianghu'', ''jianghu'' members may assist the government officials. An interesting aspect is that while senior officials are kept at a distance, ''jianghu'' members may freely associate with low-ranking staff such as runners, jailers, or clerks of the magistrates. The ''jianghu'' members maintained order among their own in the community and prevent any major disturbance, thus saving a lot of work for their associates in the ''
yamen A ''yamen'' (''ya-men''; ; Manchu: ''yamun'') was the administrative office or residence of a local bureaucrat or mandarin in imperial China. A ''yamen'' can also be any governmental office or body headed by a mandarin, at any level of govern ...
''. In return, the runners turn a blind eye to certain ''jianghu'' activities that are officially disapproved, the jailers ensured incarcerated ''jianghu'' members are not mistreated, and the clerks pass on useful tips to the ''jianghu'' community. This reciprocal arrangement allowed their superiors to maintain order in their jurisdiction with the limited resources available and ''jianghu'' members greater freedom.


Norms of the ''jianghu''

Although many ''jianghu'' members were
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
-educated, their attitudes towards the way of life in the ''jianghu'' is largely overshadowed by pragmatism. In other words, they feel that Confucian values are to be respected and upheld if they are useful, and to be discarded if they are a hindrance. The basic (spoken and unspoken) norms of the ''jianghu'' are: # No using of dirty tricks such as
eye-gouging __NOTOC__ Eye-gouging is the act of pressing or tearing the eye using the fingers or instruments. Eye-gouging involves a very high risk of eye injury, such as eye loss or blindness. Eye-gouging as a fighting style was once a popular form of ...
during fights unless one has a personal feud with the opponent. # Personal feuds do not extend to family members. # Always show respect for seniors and elders according to their status or age. # Complete obedience to one's ''
shifu Shifu () in Mandarin, or sifu in Cantonese, or sai hu in Hokkien, is a title for, and the role of, a skillful person or a master. The character 師/师 means "skilled person" or "teacher," while 傅 means "tutor" and 父 means "father." Though ...
'' (martial arts teacher). # No learning of martial arts from another person without prior permission from one's ''shifu''. # No using of martial arts against those who are not trained in martial arts. # No violating of women. # No sexual relationships with the wives of friends. # One's word is one's bond.


Etymology

The original meaning of ''jianghu'' comes from "river" (江) and "lake" (湖). This might have originally referred to the
Yangtze River The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest list of rivers of Asia, river in Asia, the list of rivers by length, third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in th ...
and
Dongting Lake Dongting Lake () is a large, shallow lake in northeastern Hunan Province, China. It is a flood basin of the Yangtze River, so its volume depends on the season. The provinces of Hubei and Hunan are named after their location relative to the lak ...
(or
Taihu Taihu (), also known as Lake Tai or Lake Taihu, is a lake in the Yangtze Delta and one of the largest freshwater lakes in China. The lake is in Jiangsu province and a significant part of its southern shore forms its border with Zhejiang. Wit ...
), and in a wider sense refers to the wilderness in general.


Usage in modern times

The term ''jianghu'' is linked to cultures other than those pertaining to martial arts in wuxia stories. It is also applied to anarchic societies. For instance, the triads and other Chinese secret societies use the term ''jianghu'' to describe their world of
organised crime Organized crime (or organised crime) is a category of transnational, national, or local groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals to engage in illegal activity, most commonly for profit. While organized crime is generally th ...
. Sometimes, the term ''jianghu'' may be replaced by the term "underworld" ''à la'' "criminal underworld". In modern terminology, ''jianghu'' may mean any circle of interest, ranging from the entertainment industry to sports. Colloquially, retirement is also referred to as "leaving the ''jianghu''" (退出江湖). In wuxia stories, when a reputable fighter decides to retire from the ''jianghu'', he will do so in a ceremony known as "washing hands in the golden basin" (金盆洗手). He washes his hands in a golden basin filled with water, signifying that he will no longer be involved in the affairs of the ''jianghu''. When a reclusive fighter who has retired from the ''jianghu'' reappears, his return is described as "re-entering the ''jianghu''" (重出江湖).


References

{{reflist Chinese literature Wuxia Fictional regions