Jacobson v. Massachusetts
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''Jacobson v. Massachusetts'', 197 U.S. 11 (1905), was a
United States Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all U.S. federal court cases, and over state court cases that involve a point o ...
case in which the Court upheld the authority of states to enforce
compulsory vaccination A vaccination policy is a health policy adopted in order to prevent the spread of infectious disease. These policies are generally put into place by State or local governments, but may also be set by private facilities, such as workplaces or sc ...
laws. The Court's decision articulated the view that individual liberty is not absolute and is subject to the police power of the state. ''Jacobson'' has been invoked in numerous other Supreme Court cases as an example of a baseline exercise of the police power.


Background

Massachusetts Massachusetts (Massachusett language, Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut assachusett writing systems, məhswatʃəwiːsət'' English: , ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is the most populous U.S. state, state in the New England ...
was one of 11 states that had compulsory vaccination laws. Massachusetts law empowered the board of health of individual cities and towns to enforce mandatory, free vaccinations for adults over the age of 21 if the municipality determined it was necessary for the public health or safety of the community. Adults who refused were subject to a $5 fine (about $ in dollars). In 1902, faced with an outbreak of
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
, the Board of Health of the city of
Cambridge, Massachusetts Cambridge ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. As part of the Boston metropolitan area, the cities population of the 2020 U.S. census was 118,403, making it the fourth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, ...
adopted a regulation ordering the vaccination or revaccination of all its inhabitants. Cambridge pastor Henning Jacobson had lived through an era of mandatory vaccinations back in his original home of
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
. Although the efforts to eradicate smallpox were successful in Sweden, Jacobson's childhood vaccination had gone badly, leaving him with a "lifelong horror of the practice". Jacobson refused vaccination saying that "he and his son had had bad reactions to earlier vaccinations" as children and that Jacobson himself "had been caused great and extreme suffering for a long period by a disease produced by vaccination". Jacobson believed that his family may have some sort of hereditary condition that made the smallpox vaccine particularly dangerous. Because of his refusal to get vaccinated, Jacobson was prosecuted and fined $5. Over the next three years until his case reached the Supreme Court of the United States, Jacobson argued that subjecting him to a fine or imprisonment for neglecting or refusing vaccination was an invasion of his liberty, the law was "unreasonable, arbitrary and oppressive", and that one should not be subjected to the law if he or she objects to vaccination, no matter the reason.


Decision

Justice
John Marshall Harlan John Marshall Harlan (June 1, 1833 – October 14, 1911) was an American lawyer and politician who served as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1877 until his death in 1911. He is often called "The Great Dissenter" due to his ...
delivered the decision for a 7–2 majority that the Massachusetts law did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court held that "''in every well ordered society charged with the duty of conserving the safety of its members the rights of the individual in respect of his liberty may at times, under the pressure of great dangers, be subjected to such restraint, to be enforced by reasonable regulations, as the safety of the general public may demand''" and that "'' al liberty for all could not exist under the operation of a principle which recognizes the right of each individual person to use his own iberty whether in respect of his person or his property, regardless of the injury that may be done to others.''" Furthermore, the Court held that mandatory vaccinations are neither arbitrary nor oppressive so long as they do not "''go so far beyond what was reasonably required for the safety of the public''". In Massachusetts, with smallpox being "''prevalent and increasing in Cambridge''", the regulation in question was "''necessary in order to protect the public health and secure the public safety''". The Court noted that Jacobson had offered proof that there were many in the medical community who believed that the smallpox vaccine would not stop the spread of the disease and, in fact, may cause other diseases of the body. However, the opinions offered by Jacobson were "''more formidable by their number than by their inherent value''" and "'' at everybody knows, ... heopposite theory accords with the common belief and is maintained by high medical authority.''" Therefore, it was left to the legislature, not the courts, to determine which of the "''two modes was likely to be the most effective for the protection of the public against disease''". No one could "''confidently assert that the means prescribed by the State to that end has no real or substantial relation to the protection of the public health and the public safety''". In conclusion, the Court acknowledged that, in "''extreme cases''", for certain individuals "''in a particular condition of ... health''", the requirement of vaccination would be "''cruel and inhuman '", in which case, courts would be empowered to interfere in order to "''prevent wrong and oppression''". However, the statute in question was not "''intended to be applied to such a case''" and Jacobson "''did not offer to prove that, by reason of his then condition, he was, in fact, not a fit subject of vaccination''". The two dissenters in the Court,
David J. Brewer David Josiah Brewer (June 20, 1837 – March 28, 1910) was an American jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1890 to 1910. An appointee of President Benjamin Harrison, he supported states' rig ...
, "one of the most influential justices nthe court at the time", and
Rufus Peckham Rufus W. Peckham (November 8, 1838 – October 24, 1909) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1895 to 1909, and is the most recent Democratic nominee approved by a Republican-majorit ...
, "a champion of economic liberty", did not write dissenting opinions.


Precedent

Harlan's decision supported both police power and limits on the power, and his decision would be invoked to support both in later cases. He stated his nuanced opinion on the limits of government power by saying that "general terms should be so limited in their application as not to lead to injustice, oppression or absurd consequence".


Subsequent developments

The
anti-vaccine movement Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal, of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services and supporting evidence. The term covers refusals to vaccinate, delaying vaccines, accepting vaccines but remaining uncertain abou ...
mobilized following the decision, and the Anti-Vaccination League of America was founded three years later to promote the principle that "health is nature's greatest safeguard against disease and that therefore no State has the right to demand of anyone the impairment of his or her health". The League warned about what it believed to be the dangers of vaccination and the dangers of allowing the intrusion of government and science into private life, part of the broader process identified with the
Progressive Movement Progressivism holds that it is possible to improve human societies through political action. As a political movement, progressivism seeks to advance the human condition through social reform based on purported advancements in science, techno ...
. The League asked, "We have repudiated ''religious'' tyranny; we have rejected ''political'' tyranny; shall we now submit to ''medical'' tyranny?". The Supreme Court reaffirmed its decision in ''Jacobson'' in '' Zucht v. King'' (1922), which held that a school system could refuse admission to a student who failed to receive a required vaccination. ''Jacobson'' has been invoked in numerous other Supreme Court cases as an example of a baseline exercise of the police power, with cases relying on it including ''
Buck v. Bell ''Buck v. Bell'', 274 U.S. 200 (1927), is a decision of the United States Supreme Court, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., in which the Court ruled that a state statute permitting compulsory sterilization of the unfit, including th ...
'', 274 U.S. 200 (1927) (sterilization of those with intellectual disabilities), ''
Prince v. Massachusetts ''Prince v. Massachusetts'', 321 U.S. 158 (1944), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the government has broad authority to regulate the actions and treatment of children. Parental authority is not absolute and ca ...
'', 321 U.S. 158 (1944) (limitations on parents having children distribute pamphlets in the street), '' Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health'', 497 U.S. 261 (1990) (allowing a state to require "clear and convincing evidence" of a patient's wishes for removal of life support), '' Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton'', 515 U.S. 646 (1995) (allowing random drug testing of students), and ''
Gonzales v. Carhart ''Gonzales v. Carhart'', 550 U.S. 124 (2007), was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court that upheld the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003. The case reached the high court after U.S. Attorney General, Alberto Gonzales, appealed a rul ...
'', 550 U.S. 124 (2007) (upholding the federal "partial birth abortion" ban). The global eradication of smallpox, brought about by an international vaccination campaign, was certified in 1980. During the
COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identif ...
, the federal
United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (in case citations, 5th Cir.) is a federal court with appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following federal judicial districts: * Eastern District of Louisiana * M ...
relied on ''Jacobson'' when upholding a Texas regulation halting abortions by including it in its ban on non-essential medical services and surgeries, consistent with Justice Blackmun's citing of the case in ''
Roe v. Wade ''Roe v. Wade'', 410 U.S. 113 (1973),. was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the Constitution of the United States conferred the right to have an abortion. The decision struck down many federal and st ...
''. (See Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on abortion in the United States.) ''Jacobson'' also has been a precedent case in justifying government
face mask The face is the front of an animal's head that features the eyes, nose and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions. The face is crucial for human Personal identity, identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental d ...
orders and
stay-at-home order A stay-at-home order, safer-at-home order, movement control order (more common in Southeast Asia), or lockdown restrictions (in the United Kingdom) – also referred to by loose use of the terms (self-) quarantine, (self-) isolation, or lockdow ...
s throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. The closest COVID-19-related lawsuit to a direct challenge to ''Jacobson'' was ''Does v. Mills'', which challenged Maine's vaccine mandate for health care workers. By a 6–3 vote, the Supreme Court in 2021 denied relief to those who were seeking an injunction on the mandate.


See also

*
List of United States Supreme Court cases This page serves as an index of lists of United States Supreme Court cases. The United States Supreme Court is the highest federal court of the United States. By Chief Justice Court historians and other legal scholars consider each Chief J ...
*
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 197 This is a list of cases reported in volume 197 of ''United States Reports'', decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1905. Justices of the Supreme Court at the time of volume 197 U.S. The Supreme Court is established by ...
*
List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court This is a partial chronological list of cases decided by the United States Supreme Court during the Fuller Court, the tenure of Chief Justice Melville Weston Fuller Melville Weston Fuller (February 11, 1833 – July 4, 1910) was a ...
* '' Compagnie Francaise de Navigation a Vapeur v. Louisiana Board of Health'', case three years earlier where the Court had upheld quarantine laws as a reasonable exercise of police power * '' National Federation of Independent Business v. Occupational Safety and Health Administration'' (2022), case in which
OSHA OSHA or Osha may refer to: Work * Occupational Safety and Health Administration, a federal agency of the United States that regulates workplace safety and health * Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States) of 1970, a federal law in the Un ...
mandating
COVID-19 vaccines A COVID19 vaccine is a vaccine intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID19). Prior to the COVID19 pandemic, an est ...
was ruled as too powerful. *
Vaccination policy A vaccination policy is a health policy adopted in order to prevent the spread of infectious disease. These policies are generally put into place by State or local governments, but may also be set by private facilities, such as workplaces or sc ...
*
Vaccine controversies Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal, of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services and supporting evidence. The term covers refusals to vaccinate, delaying vaccines, accepting vaccines but remaining uncertain abou ...


References


Sources

* George J. Annas, "Blinded by Bioterrorism: Public Health and Liberty in the 21st Century", ''Health Matrix'' (2003) *
James Colgrove James is a common English language surname and given name: *James (name), the typically masculine first name James * James (surname), various people with the last name James James or James City may also refer to: People * King James (disambiguati ...
and Ronald Bayer,
The Legacy of Jacobson v Massachusetts: Manifold Restraints: Liberty, Public Health, and the Legacy of Jacobson v Massachusetts
Manifold Restraints: Liberty, Public Health, and the Legacy of ''Jacobson v. Massachusetts]'', ''American Journal of Public Health'', vol. 95, no. 4 (2005), 571–576 * Lawrence O. Gostin,
''Jacobson v. Massachusetts'' at 100 Years: Police Power and Civil Liberties in Tension
, ''American Journal of Public Health'', vol. 95, no. 4 (2005), 576–581 * Wendy K. Mariner et al.,
''Jacobson v. Massachusetts'': It's Not Your Great-Great-Grandfather's Public Health Law
, ''American Journal of Public Health'', vol. 95, no. 4 (2005) * Michael Willrich, ''Pox: An American History'' (Penguin, 2011)


External links

* {{US14thAmendment, dueprocess 1905 in United States case law Health law in the United States Legal history of Massachusetts Smallpox vaccines United States administrative case law United States Supreme Court cases United States Supreme Court cases of the Fuller Court Vaccination law Vaccine controversies Vaccination in the United States