Iswara

''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionary
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University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the context, ''Ishvara'' can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, ''Ishvara'' means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self.

''Ishvara'' is primarily an epithet of Shiva.James Lochtefeld, "Ishvara", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. , page 306 In Shaivism, ''Ishvara'' is an epithet of Shiva. For many Vaishnavas, it is synonymous with Vishnu, like in his epithet of Venkateswara. In traditional Bhakti movements, ''Ishvara'' is one or more deities of an individual's preference ( Iṣṭa-devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, ''Ishvara'' takes the form of a monotheistic God.RK Pruthi (2004), Arya Samaj and Indian Civilization, , pages 5–6, 48–49 In the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".

Etymology

The root of the word Ishvara comes from ''īś-'' (ईश, Ish) meaning "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of". The second part of the word ''Ishvara'' is ''vara'' which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage". The composite word, ''Ishvara'' literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover".

As a concept, ''Ishvara'' in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts variously means God, Supreme Being, Supreme Self, Lord Shiva, a king or a ruler, a husband, the god of love, one of the Rudras and the number ' eleven'.

The word ''Īśvara'' does not appear in Rigveda. However, the verb ''īś-'' does appear in Rig veda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".Madhav Deshpande (1991), Sense and Syntax in Vedic (Editors: Joel Brereton and Stephenie Jamison), Volumes 4–5, Brill, , pages 23–27 It is absent in Samaveda, is rare in Atharvaveda, but it appears in Samhitas of Yajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian Pāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being.

The word ''Ishvara'' appears in numerous ancient Dharmasutras. However, Patrick Olivelle states that there ''Ishvara'' does not mean God, but means Vedas. Deshpande states that ''Ishvara'' in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that the Dharmasutras are as important as ''Ishvara'' (the king) on matters of public importance".Patrick Olivelle (2006), Between the Empires : Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE: Society in India, Oxford University Press, , page 176

The term is used as part of the compounds Maheshvara ("The Great Lord") and Parameshvara ("The Supreme Lord") as the names of Lord Shiva. In Mahayana Buddhism it is used as part of the compound "Avalokiteśvara" ("lord who hears the cries of the world", but see etymology section there), the name of a bodhisattva revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in Shaktism, the feminine ' is sometimes used.

In Advaita Vedanta school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.Lance Nelson (1996), Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita, in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, , pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)

Schools of thought

Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of ''Ishvara'', i.e., a supreme being, relevant. Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism discuss Ishvara, but assign different meanings.

Desmarais states that Isvara is a metaphysical concept in Yogasutras.Michele Marie Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds : Mind, Consciousness And Identity in Patanjali's Yoga-Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 131 It does not mention deity anywhere, nor does it mention any devotional practices ('' Bhakti''), nor does it give ''Ishvara'' characteristics typically associated with a deity. In Yoga school of Hinduism, states Whicher, Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. Whicher also notes that some theistic sub-schools of Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism, inspired by the Yoga school, explain the term ''Ishvara'' as the "Supreme Being that rules over the cosmos and the individuated beings".Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana, State University of New York press, , pages 82–86 Malinar states that in Samkhya-Yoga schools of Hinduism, ''Isvara'' is neither a creator-God, nor a savior-God.

Zimmer in his 1951 Indian philosophies book noted that the Bhakti sub-schools refer to Isvara as a Divine Lord, or the deity of specific Bhakti sub-school. Modern sectarian movements have emphasized Ishvara as Supreme Lord; for example, Hare Krishna movement considers Krishna as the Lord, Brahmoism movement influenced by Christian and Islamic movements in India probably conceptualize Ishvara as a monotheistic all powerful Lord (Brahma). In traditional theistic sub-schools of Hinduism, such as the Vishishtadvaita Vedanta of Ramanuja and Dvaita Vedanta of Madhva, Ishvara is identified as Lord Vishnu/Narayana, that is distinct from the '' prakriti'' (material world) and ''purusha'' (Self).

Radhakrishnan and Moore state that these variations in ''Ishvara'' concept is consistent with Hinduism's notion of "personal God" where the "ideals or manifestation of individual's highest Self values that are esteemed". Riepe, and others,Mircea Eliade (2009), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Princeton University Press, , pages 73–76 state that schools of Hinduism leave the individual with freedom and choice of conceptualizing Ishvara in any meaningful manner he or she wishes, either in the form of "deity of one's choice" or "formless Brahman (Absolute Reality, Universal Principle, true special Self)".Dale Riepe (1961, Reprinted 1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 177–184, 208–215

In Samkhya

Samkhya is called one of the major atheistic schools of Hindu philososphy by some scholars.Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38–39 Others, such as Jacobsen, believe Samkhya is more accurately described as non-theistic. Yet others argue that Samkhya has been theistic from its very beginnings until medieval times. Isvara is considered an irrelevant concept, neither defined nor denied, in Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.

In Yoga

The Yogasutras of Patanjali, the foundational text of Yoga school of Hinduism, uses the term ''Ishvara'' in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is ''Isvara''? These commentaries range from defining ''Isvara'' from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual". Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of ''Isvara'' in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".

Patanjali defines ''Isvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, ''puruṣa-viśeṣa'')",

Sanskrit:

– Yoga Sutras I.24

This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of ''Isvara'' as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, '' klesha''), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).aparAmRSTa

kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya
; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany

Patanjali's concept of Isvara is neither a creator God nor the universal Absolute of Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 77

In Vaisesika school of Hinduism

The Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, as founded by Kanada in the 1st millennium BC, neither required nor relied on ''Ishvara'' for its atomistic naturalism philosophy. To it, substances and ''paramāṇu'' (atoms) were eternal; they moved and interacted based on impersonal, eternal ''adrsta'' (अदृष्ट, invisible) laws of nature. The concept of ''Ishvara'', among others, entered into Vaisheshika school many centuries later in the 1st millennium AD. This evolution in ideas aimed to explain how and why its so-called "atoms" have a particular order and proportions. These later-age ancient Vaiśeṣika scholars retained their belief that substances are eternal, and added Ishvara as another eternal who is also omniscient and omnipresent (not omnipotent). Ishvara did not create the world, according to this school of Hindu scholars, but He only created invisible laws that operate the world and then He becomes passive and lets those hidden universal laws do their thing. Thus, Vaisheshika's Ishvara mirrors Deus otiosus of Deism. Vaisheshika school's ''Ishvara'', states Klaus Klostermaier, can be understood as an eternal God who co-exists in the universe with eternal substances and atoms, but He "winds up the clock, and lets it run its course".Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York, , page 337

In Nyaya

Early Nyaya school scholars considered the hypothesis of Ishvara as a creator God with the power to grant blessings, boons and fruits. However, the early Nyaya scholars rejected this hypothesis, though not the existence of God itself, and were non-theistic. Over time, the Nyaya school became one of the most important defenders of theism in Hindu philosophy.Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, , pages 18–19, 35–39

In Nyayasutra's Book 4, Chapter 1 examines what causes production and destruction of entities (life, matter) in universe. It considers many hypotheses, including ''Ishvara''. Verses 19–21, postulates Ishvara exists and is the cause, states a consequence of postulate, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid.

Centuries later, the 5th century CE Nyaya school scholar Prastapada revisited the premise of Ishvara. He was followed by Udayana, who in his text '' Nyayakusumanjali'', interpreted "it" in verse 4.1.21 of Nyaya Sutra above, as "human action" and "him" as "Ishvara", then he developed counter arguments to prove the existence of Ishvara.Sharma, C. (1997). ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy'', Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. 209-10 In developing his arguments, he inherently defined ''Ishvara'' as efficient cause, omnipotent, omniscient, infallible, giver of gifts, ability and meaning to humanity, divine creator of the world as well as the moral principles, and the unseen power that makes the karma doctrine work.

In Mimamsa

Mīmāṃsā scholars of Hinduism questioned what is ''Ishvara'' (God)?FX Clooney (1997), What’s a god? The quest for the right understanding of devatā in Brāhmaṅical ritual theory (Mīmāṃsā), International Journal of Hindu Studies, August 1997, Volume 1, Issue 2, pages 337–385 They used their ''pramana school of Hinduism proclaims that at the empirical level Ishvara is the cause of the universe and the one who awards the fruits of every action. He is defined as the one without likes and dislikes, as well embodied with compassion (vaiṣamya Nairgghṛṇya doṣa vihīnaḥ). Ishvara is that which is "free from ''avidyā'' (ignorance), free from ''ahaṃkṛti'' (ego-sense), free from ''bandhana'' (bondage)", a Self that is "pure, enlightened, liberated".John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, , pages 99–107
Having accepted and established Ishvara, Advaita Vedanta proclaims that the real nature of Ishvara (existence, consciousness and bliss) is non different from the real nature of an individual. This gives room in Advaita Vedanta to show the nature of Ishvara as both the material and instrumental cause of this universe and the individual who is limited in his own capacities as unreal and declare that there is oneness between the two having negated the qualities. This establishes Ishvara as 'saguṇa' or with attributes from the empirical existence and 'nirguṇa' from the absolute sense. This oneness is accepted only at the level of 'mukti' or ultimate realization and not at the 'vyavahara' or empirical level. At the absolute level there is no otherness nor distinction between ''Jiva'' (living being) and ''Ishvara'', and any attempts to distinguish the two is a false idea, one based on wrong knowledge, according to Advaita Vedanta.

Other Advaitin Hindu texts resonate with the monist views of Adi Shankara. For example, Isa Upanishad, in hymn 1.5-7, states Ishvara is "above everything, outside everything, beyond everything, yet also within everything"; he who knows himself as all beings and all beings as himself – he never becomes alarmed before anyone. He becomes free from fears, from delusions, from root cause of evil. He becomes pure, invulnerable, unified, free from evil, true to truth, liberated like Ishvara.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

''Ishvara'', in Vishishtadvaita Vedanta sub-school of Hinduism, is a composite concept of dualism and non-dualism, or "non-dualism with differentiation".McCasland et al. (1969), Religions of the world, Random House, , page 471 Ishvara, Vishishtadvaitin scholars such as the 11th century Ramanuja state, is the supreme creator and synonymous with Brahman. Equated with Vishnu in Vishishtadvaita or one of his avatar, he is both the material and efficient cause, transcendent and immanent. Ishvara manifests in five forms, believe Vishishtadvaitins: ''para'' (transcendent), ''vyuha'' (emanations), ''vibhava'' (incarnations), ''antaryamin'' (dwells inside), and ''arca'' (icons). According to this sub-school, states John Grimes, Ishvara possesses six divine qualities: ''jnana'' (knowledge), ''bala'' (strength), ''aisvarya'' (lordship), ''sakti'' (power), ''virya'' (virility) and ''tejas'' (splendor).John Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 143

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita concepts provided the foundation for several Bhakti movements of Hinduism, such as those by Sri Aurobindo and has been suggested as having influenced Basava's Lingayatism.

Dvaita Vedanta

The Dvaita ( dualism) sub-school of Vedanta Hinduism, founded by 13th century Madhva, defines ''Ishvara'' as creator God that is distinct from ''Jiva'' (individual Selfs in living beings).R. Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, , pages 345–347 Narayana (Vishnu) is considered to be ''Ishvara'', and the Vaishnavism movement arose on the foundation developed by Dvaita Vedanta sub-school.Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, , page 251

''Ishvara'' (God) is a complete, perfect and the highest reality to Dvaitins, and simultaneously the world is a separate reality for them, unlike competing thoughts in other sub-schools of Vedanta. In Dvaita sub-school, ''Jiva'' (individual Self) is different, yet dependent on ''Ishvara'' (God). Both possess the attributes of consciousness, bliss and existence, but the individual Self is considered atomic, while God is all encompassing. The attributes of ''Jiva'' struggle to manifest, while of God it is fully manifested.

Madhva states there are five permutations of differences between ''Jiva'' (individual Self) and ''Ishvara'' (God): between God and Self, between God and matter, between Self and matter, between one Self and another Self, and between one material thing and another material thing. The differences are both qualitative and quantitative. Unlike Advaita Vedantins who hold that knowledge can lead to Oneness with everyone and everything as well as fusion with the Universal Timeless Absolute, to the state of moksha in this life, Dvaita Vedantins hold that moksha is possible only in after-life if God so wills (if not, then one's Self is reborn). Further, Madhva highlights that God creates individual Self, but the individual Self never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, , pages 155–157

The world, called ''Maya'', is held as the divine will of Ishvara. ''Jiva'' suffers, experiences misery and bondage, state Dvaitins, because of "ignorance and incorrect knowledge" (''ajnana''). Liberation occurs with the correct knowledge and attainment unto Lord Narayana. It is His grace that gives salvation according to Dvaita sub-school, which is achievable by predominance of ''sattva'' guna (moral, constructive, simple, kindness-filled life), and therefore Dvaitins must live a dharmic life while constantly remembering, deeply loving ''Ishvara''.

Achintya-Bheda-Abheda

is a sub-school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the creation, Prakriti, and the creator, Ishvara (Krishna).''Madhya'' 20.108-109
"It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire."

In Sanskrit ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable', ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'. Self (their English phrase for the Sanskrit word: ''jiva'') are considered parts of God, and thus one with Him in quality, and yet at the same time different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference.

Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva completed the progression to devotional theism. Rāmānuja had agreed with that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. Madhva had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the Jīva: he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-abheda).

In Carvaka

Cārvāka, another atheist tradition in Hinduism, was materialist and a school of philosophical scepticism. They rejected all concepts of ''Ishvara'' as well as all forms of supernaturalism.KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 67, Quote: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Caravaka system, is a Hindu system."

See also

* Absolute (philosophy)
* Bhagavan
* Conceptions of God
* Īśvarism
* Ishbara
* Para Brahman
* Parameshashakti

References

{{Burmese nats

Hindu philosophical concepts
Names of God in Hinduism
Superlatives in religion
Forms of Shiva