The Independence Association (독립협회, 獨立協會) was founded through the initiative of Philip Jaisohn (

Seo Jae-pil Soh Jaipil or Seo Jae-pil (January 7, 1864 – January 5, 1951), also known as Philip Jaisohn, was a Korean- American political activist and physician who was a noted champion of the Korean independence movement, the first Korean naturalized cit ...

) on July 2, 1896. At its founding it was recognized by the

Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...

Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Despite some remarkable achievements, by the late nineteenth century Korea found itself wholly unable to resist, or even properly comprehend the encroachments of foreign powers.

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...

's victory in the

First Sino-Japanese War The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the p ...

had both removed the Chinese from the peninsula and exacted an acknowledgment of Korean independence, but the country's independence was fragile, with Japan, Russia, and other powers vying for influence. The group was founded by reform-minded citizens, and worked to strengthen Korean independence, promote national self-strengthening, create a public sphere, and advocate democratic participation in government decisions. The club published a newspaper,

Tongnip Sinmun ''The Independent'' or ''Tongnip Sinmun'' (독립신문; 1896–1899) was an early Korean newspaper. ''Tongnip Sinmun'' was the first privately managed modern daily newspaper in Korea. It was founded in July 1896 by a member of the enlightened Ko ...

(The Independent), and worked to create symbols of Korean independence. It supported public education, journalism, and language reform. Its political program for reforming the government into a constitutional monarchy brought it into conflict with the Emperor and conservatives in the court, and the club was ordered to disband in December 1898.

Overview

It did not go unnoticed in Korea that

Emperor Gojong Gojong (; 8 September 1852 – 21 January 1919) was the monarch of Korea from 1864 to 1907. He reigned as the last King of Joseon from 1864 to 1897, and as the first Emperor of Korea from 1897 until his forced abdication in 1907. He is known ...

and his high officials were prepared to rely on the support and benevolence of foreign powers to preserve the

territorial integrity Territorial integrity is the principle under international law that gives the right to sovereign states to defend their borders and all territory in them of another state. It is enshrined in Article 2(4) of the UN Charter and has been recognized ...

of Korea. If the government could not act in the face of such an external threat however, the people could, and did. The public at large reacted by attacking the government's ineffective policies and fought dauntlessly to maintain their nation's

independence Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the stat ...

and freedom. The fight was carried out largely through the efforts of a newly emerging class of

intellectual An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for the normative problems of society. Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator o ...

s that had been exposed to the liberal ideas of

Western culture Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man''. Based on the correlations of ideal Body proportions">human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De architectura''. image:Plato Pio-Cle ...

. At its roots, the Enlightenment thought of these new reformers represented a continuation of the old school traditions of Northern Learning within the Sirhak movement. It held to the same goals of achieving national

prosperity Prosperity is the flourishing, thriving, good fortune and successful social status. Prosperity often produces profuse wealth including other factors which can be profusely wealthy in all degrees, such as happiness and health. Competing notions ...

and

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...

strength through the introduction of new

technology Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, scien ...

and the development of modern

commerce Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, natio ...

and industry. The difference this time was the new reformers were reaching to the

West West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...

for

modernization Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. The "classical" theories of modernization of the 1950s and 1960s drew on sociological analyses of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and a partial reading of Max Weber, ...

, not to China. The enlightenment thinkers pushed the notion that their goals could be best achieved by throwing open Korea's

port A port is a maritime facility comprising one or more wharves or loading areas, where ships load and discharge cargo and passengers. Although usually situated on a sea coast or estuary, ports can also be found far inland, such as H ...

s and establishing commercial relations with the West. Topping the list of Korea's concerns was the acquisition of Western

weapon A weapon, arm or armament is any implement or device that can be used to deter, threaten, inflict physical damage, harm, or kill. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, s ...

s technology to improve its ability to defend itself. In addition, Korea was very interested in acquiring new

agricultural Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peopl ...

technology to help enrich the country. Gradually however, this concern gave way to a more

radical Radical may refer to: Politics and ideology Politics * Radical politics, the political intent of fundamental societal change *Radicalism (historical), the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe an ...

stream of enlightenment thought that placed a high priority on political and institutional change in the

government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government i ...

. The dynastic weakness and foreign aggression in both China and

Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...

between 1896 and 1898 led to a number of internal

reform movement A reform movement or reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary m ...

s. In the search for new answers, Korea certainly had its own visionaries, men like Yu Kil-chun, who studied in both Japan and the United States during the 1880s and had visited Europe. Edward S. Morse, Director of the Peabody Museum in

Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...

Massachusetts Massachusetts (Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut Massachusett_writing_systems.html" ;"title="nowiki/> məhswatʃəwiːsət.html" ;"title="Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət">Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət'' En ...

, had made three trips to Japan in the 1870s and 1880s and dedicated himself to bringing

Asian art The history of Asian art includes a vast range of arts from various cultures, regions, and religions across the continent of Asia. The major regions of Asia include Central, East, South, Southeast, and West Asia. Central Asian art primarily c ...

and

culture Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups ...

to the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

. In 1883, Morse was asked to help organized the first official

n delegation to America. Yu Kil-chun, a junior member of that delegation, became friends with Morse and remained in the United States to continue his

education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...

. After returning to Korea, Yu wrote the first Korean book on the West, ''Observations on a Journey to the West''. He wrote about the

geography Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, an ...

history History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...

politics Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...

economy An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with th ...

society A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Soc ...

, and

learning Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of lea ...

of numerous Western nations. He not only described what he saw, but measured Korea against the West and advocated that Korea follow the model of

Western civilization Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man''. Based on the correlations of ideal Body proportions">human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De architectura''. image:Plato Pio-Cle ...

in its drive for modernization.

Yu Kil-chun

As a progressive advocate of

internationalism Internationalism may refer to: * Cosmopolitanism, the view that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a shared morality as opposed to communitarianism, patriotism and nationalism * International Style, a major architectur ...

, Yu Kil-chun believed the process of enlightenment could take only two directions in Korea. One way would slavishly imitate the methods of others without first understanding the

context Context may refer to: * Context (language use), the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use, language variation, and discourse summary Computing * Context (computing), the virtual environment required to s ...

in which those methods had developed. The second way, the way Yu hoped would be followed, involved first perceiving the ways of the West and then adapting them to the realities of Korea, much like the path taken by Japan. Yu proceeded to develop a plan for political and economic reform in Korea based on this approach. His ultimate objective was to establish a

constitutional democracy Liberal democracy is the combination of a liberal political ideology that operates under an indirect democratic form of government. It is characterized by elections between multiple distinct political parties, a separation of powers into ...

and create a

free enterprise In economics, a free market is an economic system in which the prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand expressed by sellers and buyers. Such markets, as modeled, operate without the intervention of government or any ot ...

capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private ...

. The idea of capitalism was not unheard of in Korea at the time. In 1883, a now unknown author published an article that described the formation of a

corporation A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law "born out of statute"; a legal person in legal context) and ...

. The article addressed the need to form Western style

business Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit." Having a business name does not separ ...

organizations and went on to describe the structure and operation of the modern corporation. Until this transition could be accomplished however, Yu felt the

constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...

was best suited for his country.

Yi Hang-no

At the other end of the reform

spectrum A spectrum (plural ''spectra'' or ''spectrums'') is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary, without gaps, across a continuum. The word was first used scientifically in optics to describe the rainbow of colors ...

, the Reject

Heterodoxy In religion, heterodoxy (from Ancient Greek: , "other, another, different" + , "popular belief") means "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position". Under this definition, heterodoxy is similar to unorthodoxy, w ...

movement ran directly counter to the enlightened thought of men like Yu Kil-chun. Yi Hang-no was perhaps the foremost proponent of this position, one conceptually based on the

Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) ...

Chu Hsi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...

. Yi Hang-no and his followers held that Neo-Confucianism was the only valid

belief system A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take ...

and that any

civilization A civilization (or civilisation) is any complex society characterized by the development of a state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond natural spoken language (namely, a writing system). ...

believing any other

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...

must be kept out of Korea at all costs. He and his followers took the extreme

Confucianist Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...

position that called for continued armed resistance against foreign intrusions, asserting all the while that to advocate peaceful relations would be tantamount to abandoning the

moral A moral (from Latin ''morālis'') is a message that is conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader, or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim. ...

foundations of Korean civilization. Yi Hang-no believed his position so strongly that in 1866, following the

French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...

attacks on Kanghwa Island, he resigned his position as Royal Secretary to the King. From then on, Yi attempted not only to rouse his countrymen to battle against foreign aggression, but insisted that internal transformation of society was also needed. Only after the government acted on the advice of its policy critics, improved the state of military readiness and appointed men of

moral character Moral character or character (derived from charaktêr) is an analysis of an individual's steady moral qualities. The concept of ''character'' can express a variety of attributes, including the presence or lack of virtues such as empathy, cour ...

to government posts, would a strong stance against foreign aggression be possible. Yi Hang-no went so far as to call for the formation of local guerrilla

militia A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of r ...

s, so called " righteous armies," to fight alongside the government in its battle against the foreign enemy. He raised a great cry in opposition to Western economic aggression against Korea. He believed that trade with the West would only impoverish Korea by taking the goods it needed for its own development. He even called for a

boycott A boycott is an act of nonviolent, voluntary abstention from a product, person, organization, or country as an expression of protest. It is usually for moral, social, political, or environmental reasons. The purpose of a boycott is to inflict so ...

of Western goods, thinking that if Koreans did not use them, trade with the West would become unnecessary.

Seo Jae-pil

, a sincere patriot and an advocate of modernization and

political Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studi ...

democracy Democracy (From grc, δημοκρατία, dēmokratía, ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation (" direct democracy"), or to choose g ...

, emerged as one of the leading figures behind the move toward national independence and governmental

reform Reform ( lat, reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill's Association movement ...

s in Korea. Seo Jae-pil, one of the leaders of the attempted coup d'état of 1884, fled to Japan when it failed. From there, he traveled to the United States, where he married an American woman, acquired

United States citizenship Citizenship of the United States is a legal status that entails Americans with specific rights, duties, protections, and benefits in the United States. It serves as a foundation of fundamental rights derived from and protected by the Cons ...

, and earned a

medical degree A medical degree is a professional degree admitted to those who have passed coursework in the fields of medicine and/or surgery from an accredited medical school. Obtaining a degree in medicine allows for the recipient to continue on into special ...

from the

University of Washington The University of Washington (UW, simply Washington, or informally U-Dub) is a public research university in Seattle, Washington. Founded in 1861, Washington is one of the oldest universities on the West Coast; it was established in Seatt ...

. Known in America as Doctor Philip Jaisohn, Seo Jae-pil returned to Korea in early 1896 and soon afterward was offered a position as

consultant A consultant (from la, consultare "to deliberate") is a professional (also known as ''expert'', ''specialist'', see variations of meaning below) who provides advice and other purposeful activities in an area of specialization. Consulting servi ...

to the

Privy Council A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a state, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word "privy" means "private" or "secret"; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the mo ...

. Preferring to have greater freedom of action, he refused the position, but agreed to serve as an adviser to the throne, a position which broadened his contacts among prominent government leaders. Determined to help secure Korean independence and spread the desire for democracy and reform among the population by whatever means he could,

chose the press as his

medium Medium may refer to: Science and technology Aviation * Medium bomber, a class of war plane * Tecma Medium, a French hang glider design Communication * Media (communication), tools used to store and deliver information or data * Medium ...

. With government financing, he introduced modern

journalism Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on the interaction of events, facts, ideas, and people that are the " news of the day" and that informs society to at least some degree. The word, a noun, applies to the occupation (p ...

on April 7, 1896, with the

publication To publish is to make content available to the general public.Berne Conve ...

of Korea's first independent, modern

bilingual Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all ...

newspaper A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information about current events and is often typed in black ink with a white or gray background. Newspapers can cover a wide variety of fields such as politics, business, spor ...

, the Dongnip Sinmun (The Independent). To attract as wide a readership as possible, the first three pages were printed in pure

Hangul The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The l ...

and the last page was printed in

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ...

. The four-page newspaper started with a

press run Print circulation is the average number of copies of a publication. The number of copies of a non-periodical publication (such as a book) are usually called print run. Circulation is not always the same as copies sold, often called paid circulat ...

of just 300 copies three days a week, but quickly became a

daily paper A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information about current events and is often typed in black ink with a white or gray background. Newspapers can cover a wide variety of fields such as politics, business, sports an ...

that covered the views of the new

intelligentsia The intelligentsia is a status class composed of the university-educated people of a society who engage in the complex mental labours by which they critique, shape, and lead in the politics, policies, and culture of their society; as such, the i ...

and their liberal Western ideas. The Independent served as an effective vehicle to spread the messages of

and

patriotic Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, language relating to one's own homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political or histor ...

nationalism Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a in-group and out-group, group of peo ...

, informing the public and maintaining independence from foreign encroachment. It argued impartially both for and against

government policies Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions to solve or address relevant and real-world problems, guided by a conception and often implemented by programs. Public ...

, calling for an all-out effort to strengthen Korean

autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy, from , ''autonomos'', from αὐτο- ''auto-'' "self" and νόμος ''nomos'', "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one' ...

and promote the public good. The Independent awakened

Koreans Koreans ( South Korean: , , North Korean: , ; see names of Korea) are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula. Koreans mainly live in the two Korean nation states: North Korea and South Korea (collectively and simply r ...

to the urgent needs of the day: eliminating

corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...

, promoting

civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life ...

, expanding

and solidifying

national sovereignty Westphalian sovereignty, or state sovereignty, is a principle in international law that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory. The principle underlies the modern international system of sovereign states and is enshrined in the Un ...

. Seo Jae-pil took every opportunity to address the Korean people on current topics and did his utmost to introduce readers to modern

science Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence ...

and Western

ideology An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones." Formerly applied pri ...

. He demanded the Korean government give top priority to promoting civil rights and that it safeguard national sovereignty by resisting the growth of foreign influence. He worked tirelessly to educate the public on the need for

by calling for wide circulation of both domestic and foreign

currency A currency, "in circulation", from la, currens, -entis, literally meaning "running" or "traversing" is a standardization of money in any form, in use or circulation as a medium of exchange, for example banknotes and coins. A more general ...

for domestic transactions, the exploitation of

mining Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit. The exploitation of these deposits for raw material is based on the econom ...

resources and commerce promoting national

wealth Wealth is the abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating Old English word , which is from an I ...

road construction A road is a linear way for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians. Unlike streets, the main function of roads is transportation. There are many types of ...

women's education Female education is a catch-all term of a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education (primary education, secondary education, tertiary education, and health education in particular) for girls and women. It is frequently called girls ...

, the promotion of Hangul for

mass education Compulsory education refers to a period of education that is required of all people and is imposed by the government. This education may take place at a registered school or at other places. Compulsory school attendance or compulsory schooling ...

and the creation of an

elected Elected may refer to: * "Elected" (song), by Alice Cooper, 1973 * ''Elected'' (EP), by Ayreon, 2008 *The Elected, an American indie rock band See also *Election An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population ...

congress A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...

Foreign Perspective

The English author Isabella Bird Bishop, an ardent traveler and the first female member of the

Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical scien ...

, wrote a number of books on her travels, including ''Korea and Her Neighbors''. In 1898, she wrote

Only those who have formed some idea of the besotted ignorance of the Korean concerning
current events News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. ...
in his own country, and of the credulity which makes him the victim of every rumour set afloat in the capital, can appreciate the significance of this step and its probable effect in enlightening the people, and in creating a
public opinion Public opinion is the collective opinion on a specific topic or voting intention relevant to a society. It is the people's views on matters affecting them. Etymology The term "public opinion" was derived from the French ', which was first use ...
which shall sit in judgement on regal and official misdeeds. It is already fulfilling an important function in unearthing abuses and dragging them into daylight, and is creating a desire for
rational Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abi ...
education and reasonable reform, and is becoming something of a terror to evil-doers. ... The sight of newsboys passing through the streets with bundles of a newspaper in onmun
angul Angul (also known as Anugul) is a town and a municipality and the headquarters of Angul district in the state of Odisha, India. Angul has an average elevation of above sea level. The total geographical area of the district is 6232 km2. ...
under their arms, and of men reading them in their shops, is among the novelties of 1897.

Forming the Independence Club

A number of

political organization A political organization is any organization that involves itself in the political process, including political parties, non-governmental organizations, and special interest advocacy groups. Political organizations are those engaged in poli ...

s came into being in Korea during the 1890s, each formed with the hope of securing the nation's independence and the rights of the people. Each group tackled the problem of

national independence The right of a people to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a ''jus cogens'' rule), binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter's norms. It stat ...

from a different direction. The most energetic of these organizations was also the first to form. On July 2, 1896,

and

Yi Sang-jae Yi or YI may refer to: Philosophic Principle * Yì (义; 義, righteousness, justice) among the 三綱五常 Ethnic groups * Dongyi, the Eastern Yi, or Tung-yi (Chinese: , ''Yí''), ancient peoples who lived east of the Zhongguo in ancient Ch ...

Yun Chi-ho Yun Chi-ho ( Korean: 윤치호, hanja: 尹致昊, 1864 – 1945) or Tchi ho yun was an important political activist and thinker during the late 1800s and early 1900s in Joseon Korea. His penname was Jwa-ong (좌옹, 佐翁); his courtesy name w ...

formally inaugurated the Independence Club (Doklip-hyuphoe). Minister of War An Kyong-su served as the club's first president and Foreign Minister Yi Wan-yong served as its chairman. The principal goals of the club were to instill a desire for independence, to instill a belief in democratic principles in the hearts of Koreans, to awaken the population to the need for self-realization and modernization, and to emphasize the strengthening of their own power. The Independence Club drew its early membership of about 30 men from other like-minded groups, from incumbent

politician A politician is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking an elected office in government. Politicians propose, support, reject and create laws that govern the land and by an extension of its people. Broadly speaking, ...

s and former

government official An official is someone who holds an office (function or mandate, regardless whether it carries an actual working space with it) in an organization or government and participates in the exercise of authority, (either their own or that of their su ...

s. Members came from the Chongdong Club, founded by Yun Chi-ho and Yi Sang-jae, both active in Korea's diplomatic affairs, and from the Konyang Club (a name that symbolized the end of Korea's suzerain relationship with China), founded by Yu Kil-chun and other leaders of the reforms of 1894. As criticism of the government and its policies mounted, a number of the higher level officials associated with the Independence Club thought it wise to resign their positions for political reasons. In their place came representatives of the new intelligentsia, men influenced by Western culture whose ideology developed from the Confucian reformist idea of "Eastern ways, Western

machine A machine is a physical system using power to apply forces and control movement to perform an action. The term is commonly applied to artificial devices, such as those employing engines or motors, but also to natural biological macromolecul ...

s." One of the most noteworthy members of the Independence Club was a young man named

Ahn Chang-ho Ahn Changho, sometimes An Chang-ho (; , November 9, 1878 – March 10, 1938) was a Korean independence activist and one of the early leaders of the Korean-American immigrant community in the United States. He is also referred to by his pen na ...

. He grew into one of

's most illustrious national leaders, a man who devoted his entire life to the Korean independence movement. Ahn Chang-ho was recognized as a great political and educational thinker who developed a vision and philosophy for national salvation,

social reform A reform movement or reformism is a type of social movement that aims to bring a social or also a political system closer to the community's ideal. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary mov ...

and the philosophy of character innovation. The selection of officers and the conduct of club business was handled democratically. Matters of importance were decided by a simple

majority A majority, also called a simple majority or absolute majority to distinguish it from related terms, is more than half of the total.Dictionary definitions of ''majority'' aMerriam-Webster town A town is a human settlement. Towns are generally larger than villages and smaller than cities, though the criteria to distinguish between them vary considerably in different parts of the world. Origin and use The word "town" shares an o ...

s, one group in each

province A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman ''provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions out ...

became the liaison group that maintained regular contact with the club's headquarters in Seoul.

Political Action

As it became more of a citizen's assembly, the Independence Club moved beyond symbolic activities and began to initiate direct social and political action programs. This modernization movement began with the goals of awakening the Korean people, opposing the country's

tributary A tributary, or affluent, is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem (or parent) river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean. Tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drai ...

attitude towards

Qing China The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...

, promoting the cause of national self-rule, and reforming

government administration The term administration, as used in the context of government, differs according to the jurisdiction under which it operates. In general terms, administration can be described as a decision making body. United States In American usage, the term ...

. The first priority was to launch a campaign of public education and the most effective tool toward this end was The Independent, the club's newspaper. One of the first projects undertaken by the paper was an attempt to establish some tangible symbol of Korean independence. Seo Jae-pil proposed to tear down the

Yeongeunmun The Yeongeunmun () or Yeongeunmun Gate is a historical structure once located in the Joseon Dynasty. Since it was a symbol of China's diplomatic influence on the Joseon, the Gaehwa Party of the Joseon government intentionally demolished it in Fe ...

("Gate of Welcoming Grace") a

tile Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, walls, edges, or ...

roof A roof ( : roofs or rooves) is the top covering of a building, including all materials and constructions necessary to support it on the walls of the building or on uprights, providing protection against rain, snow, sunlight, extremes of t ...

ed gate with

stone In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...

pillar A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. ...

s and a red

wood Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...

en top. Built in 1539, this was the special gate where Chinese envoys had been escorted and received in the past. In its place, a new gate, the

Dongnimmun Dongnimmun () or Independence Gate is a memorial gate at Seoul, built by Soh Jaipil in late 19th century, as a symbol of Korea's commitment to independence around the world. It is designated as Historic Sites of South Korea in 1963, and relocat ...

("Independence Gate") would be erected as a

symbol A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different conc ...

of Korean independence and the end of

suzerainty Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is ca ...

to a foreign power. Second, he proposed that the Mohwagwan, the guest quarters where Chinese

embassies A diplomatic mission or foreign mission is a group of people from a state or organization present in another state to represent the sending state or organization officially in the receiving or host state. In practice, the phrase usually deno ...

had been entertained, be renovated and that an Independence Hall and

Independence Park Independence Park may refer to: * Independence Park Botanic Gardens, a botanical garden in Baton Rouge, Louisiana * Independence Park (Charlotte, North Carolina), a park in Charlotte, North Carolina * Independence Park (Chicago), a park in Chicago ...

be created there. In the context of the international crisis facing Korea at the time, the proposals evoked a warm response from the people. For the first time, the word "freedom" came in vogue in Korea. In August 1896, within days after the proposals, the "Independence Association" was founded. The citizens responded with not only support, but sizable contributions as well. Even the royal family and many of the government's highest officials contributed to the Independence Club projects. Crown Prince Yi-Chak made a financial contribution to the group as a token of his cooperation. Within three months, membership in the association swelled to nearly ten thousand. With its success thus assured, the

groundbreaking Groundbreaking, also known as cutting, sod-cutting, turning the first sod, or a sod-turning ceremony, is a traditional ceremony in many cultures that celebrates the first day of construction for a building or other project. Such ceremonies are ...

and

cornerstone The cornerstone (or foundation stone or setting stone) is the first stone set in the construction of a masonry foundation. All other stones will be set in reference to this stone, thus determining the position of the entire structure. Over tim ...

laying ceremony was carried out in November. The Independence Gate, modeled after the French

Arc de Triomphe The Arc de Triomphe de l'Étoile (, , ; ) is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-Élysées at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Place de l'Étoile—the ''étoile'' ...

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. Si ...

, was built by Chinese workers under the watchful eyes of

architectural engineer Architectural engineers apply and theoretical knowledge to the engineering design of buildings and building systems. The goal is to engineer high performance buildings that are sustainable, economically viable and ensure the safety health. Archi ...

Sim Ui-seok. The new gate, which used 1850

granite Granite () is a coarse-grained ( phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly cools and solidifies un ...

blocks, was completed and dedicated in 1898. The words Tongnipmun (Independence Gate) were inscribed at the top of the gate – Korean characters on the south side and

Chinese character Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...

s on the north side. Sculptors carved the Korean flag into the granite face on each side of the gate, the only place where the Korean flag could be legitimately displayed during the Japanese occupation. Retaining a bit of the past, the two large pillars on the front side of the Independence Gate were taken from the old Yongunmun Gate. The activities of the Independence Club were specifically directed toward three primary goals:

, wider citizen participation in the political process, and national self-strengthening. First, it directed its energy toward safeguarding Korea's independence in the face of external pressures by urging that Korea adopt a

foreign policy A state's foreign policy or external policy (as opposed to internal or domestic policy) is its objectives and activities in relation to its interactions with other states, unions, and other political entities, whether bilaterally or through ...

based on

and neutrality, one that would show no favor to any foreign power seeking to advance its parochial interests in the

peninsula A peninsula (; ) is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on a ...

. Second, the Independence Club initiated a popular rights movement in Korea to create wider participation in the political process. The ideological basis of this movement demanded the full

equality Equality may refer to: Society * Political equality, in which all members of a society are of equal standing ** Consociationalism, in which an ethnically, religiously, or linguistically divided state functions by cooperation of each group's elit ...

of all people, the rights of

free speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The right to freedom of expression has been recog ...

and assembly, the right of the

individual An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of being an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of being a person unique from other people and possessing one's own need ...

to the

security" \n\n\nsecurity.txt is a proposed standard for websites' security information that is meant to allow security researchers to easily report security vulnerabilities. The standard prescribes a text file called \"security.txt\" in the well known locat ...

of his

person A person ( : people) is a being that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality, consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations such as kinship, ownership of prope ...

and

property Property is a system of rights that gives people legal control of valuable things, and also refers to the valuable things themselves. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property may have the right to consume, alter, share, r ...

, and the doctrine of the

sovereignty of the people Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, who are the source of all political power. Popular sovereignty, being a principle, does not imply any p ...

. In its demands for the right of the governed to participate in their governing, the Independence Club had in effect launched a

grassroots A grassroots movement is one that uses the people in a given district, region or community as the basis for a political or economic movement. Grassroots movements and organizations use collective action from the local level to effect change at t ...

political movement A political movement is a collective attempt by a group of people to change government policy or social values. Political movements are usually in opposition to an element of the status quo, and are often associated with a certain ideology. Some ...

for political democracy in Korea. Third, the Independence Club sought to promote a movement of self-strengthening by establishing

school A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes co ...

s in each

village A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred ...

to provide a new and more modern kind of education. In their drive to expand the

commercial Commercial may refer to: * a dose of advertising conveyed through media (such as - for example - radio or television) ** Radio advertisement ** Television advertisement * (adjective for:) commerce, a system of voluntary exchange of products and s ...

and industrial

infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and priv ...

in Korea, the Club promoted the

construction Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations,"Construction" def. 1.a. 1.b. and 1.c. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009 and ...

textile Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, different #Fabric, fabric types, etc. At f ...

and

paper mill A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags, and other ingredients. Prior to the invention and adoption of the Fourdrinier machine and other types of paper machine that use an endless belt ...

s and

ironworks An ironworks or iron works is an industrial plant where iron is smelted and where heavy iron and steel products are made. The term is both singular and plural, i.e. the singular of ''ironworks'' is ''ironworks''. Ironworks succeeded bloomer ...

to further

's commercial capacity and industry. Finally, they urged the development of a more modern

national defense National security, or national defence, is the security and defence of a sovereign state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. Originally conceived as protection against military attac ...

capability, including a

navy A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and related functions. It in ...

, to ensure the security of the country. With the future of the peninsula increasingly tied to the fortunes of

and

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-ei ...

, the Independence Club gained strength throughout

, generating a force that gave some hope to a future free from foreign influence. It unleashed a strong sense of independence among the people and generated the hope for a future free of foreign domination, the first prerequisite for the formation of a modern state.

Clash with the government and disbanding the club

The Independence Club launched a movement to establish a national assembly in April 1898. In October 1898 the club held demonstrations in front of palace in response to the government's attempts to revise repressive pre-Gabo laws. Participants included yangban, students, monks, merchants, and other commoners, as well as outcastes. The club mobilized a thousand people a day, causing great public excitement, and appears to have come close to forcing Gojong to give into their demands for an appointed assembly. In October 1898, the club announced six requirements to the Emperor Gojong. The 6 were following: # Neither officials nor people shall depend upon foreign aid, but shall do their best to strengthen and uphold the imperial power. # All documents pertaining to foreign loans, the hiring of foreign soldiers, the granting of concessions, etc., in fact every document drawn up between the Korean government and a foreign party or firm, shall be signed and sealed by all the Ministers of State and the President of the Privy Council. # Important offenders shall be punished only after they have been given a public trial and ample opportunity to defend themselves. # To his Majesty shall belong the power to appoint Ministers, but in case a majority of the Cabinet disapproves of the Emperor's nominee he shall not be appointed. # All sources of revenue and methods of raising taxes shall be placed under the control of the Finance Department, no other department, officer or corporation being allowed to interfere therewith; and the annual estimates and balances shall be made public. # The existing laws and regulations shall be enforced without fear or favour. The Independence Club took “loyalty to the emperor and patriotism for the country” as its motto. The organization tried to criticize the government for corruption, while not directly insulting Emperor Gojong, distinguish him from his “wicked” officials. Gojong, however, seems to have seen the Independence Club as a threat to his power. When the club voted to recall Park Yeong-hyo from Japan to sit in the assembly, conservatives in the court struck back. Conservatives charged that the club was plotting to overthrow the Emperor, and on November 5, 1898, seventeen club members were arrested. This resulted in bloody street battles in November that brought Seoul to a state of near anarchy. The Emperor condemned the club, saying it had "ignored government orders, rudely repudiated the court, and expelled the ministers." He resented that the club members did not heed his ordinances ordering them to curb their activities, and he ordered the organization be dissolved. After continued riots, in December 1898 Gojong enforced martial law and arrested 340 leaders of the Independence Club, sent troops to break up demonstrations, and forbade popular assemblies. Several of the leaders went into exile. Gojong preferred to uphold royal authority rather than risk opening the political system to public participation. The following years saw the Emperor work to consolidate monarchical power, and discourage public opposition.

References

External links

Independence Club

{{Authority control History of Korea Yun Chi-ho Soh Jaipil Joseon dynasty Human rights organizations based in Korea Liberal parties in Asia Defunct liberal political parties Organizations established in 1896

Overview

Yu Kil-chun

Yi Hang-no

Seo Jae-pil

Foreign Perspective

Forming the Independence Club

Political Action

Clash with the government and disbanding the club

References

Further reading

External links