[152][153] The challenges facing victims often continue after their removal from coercive exploitation.
[154] In addition to coping with their past traumatic experiences, former trafficking victims often experience
social alienation in the host and home countries.
Stigmatization,
social exclusion, and
intolerance often make it difficult for former victims to integrate into their host community, or to reintegrate into their former community. Accordingly, one of the central aims of protection assistance, is the promotion of (re)integration.
[155][156] Too often however, governments and large institutional donors offer little funding to support the provision of assistance and social services to former trafficking victims.
[157] As the victims are also pushed into
drug trafficking, many of them face criminal sanctions also.
[158]
Psychological
Short-term impact – psychological coercion
The use of coercion by perpetrators and traffickers involves the use of extreme control. Perpetrators expose the victim to high amounts of psychological stress induced by threats, fear, and physical and emotional violence. Tactics of coercion are reportedly used in three phases of trafficking: recruitment, initiation, and indoctrination.[159] During the initiation phase, traffickers use foot-in-the-door techniques of persuasion to lead their victims into various trafficking industr
The use of coercion by perpetrators and traffickers involves the use of extreme control. Perpetrators expose the victim to high amounts of psychological stress induced by threats, fear, and physical and emotional violence. Tactics of coercion are reportedly used in three phases of trafficking: recruitment, initiation, and indoctrination.[159] During the initiation phase, traffickers use foot-in-the-door techniques of persuasion to lead their victims into various trafficking industries. This manipulation creates an environment where the victim becomes completely dependent upon the authority of the trafficker.[159] Traffickers take advantage of family dysfunction, homelessness, and history of childhood abuse to psychologically manipulate women and children into the trafficking industry.[160]
One form of psychological coercion particularly common in cases of sex trafficking and forced prostitution is Stockholm syndrome. Many women entering into the sex trafficking industry are minors whom have already experienced prior sexual abuse.[161] Traffickers take advantage of young girls by luring them into the business through force and coercion, but more often through false promises of love, security, and protection. This form of coercion works to recruit and initiate the victim into the life of a se
One form of psychological coercion particularly common in cases of sex trafficking and forced prostitution is Stockholm syndrome. Many women entering into the sex trafficking industry are minors whom have already experienced prior sexual abuse.[161] Traffickers take advantage of young girls by luring them into the business through force and coercion, but more often through false promises of love, security, and protection. This form of coercion works to recruit and initiate the victim into the life of a sex worker, while also reinforcing a "trauma bond", also known as Stockholm syndrome. Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response where the victim becomes attached to his or her perpetrator.[161][162]
The goal of a trafficker is to turn a human being into a slave. To do this, perpetrators employ tactics that can lead to the psychological consequence of learned helplessness for the victims, where they sense that they no longer have any autonomy or control over their lives.[160] Traffickers may hold their victims captive, expose them to large amounts of alcohol or use drugs, keep them in isolation, or withhold food or sleep.[160] During this time the victim often begins to feel the onset of depression, guilt and self-blame, anger and rage, and sleep disturbances, PTSD, numbing, and extreme stress. Under these pressures, the victim can fall into the hopeless mental state of learned helplessness.[159][163][164]
For victims specifically trafficked for the purpose of forced prostitution and sexual slavery, initiation into the trade is almost always characterized by violence.[160] Traffickers employ practices of sexual abuse, torture, brainwashing, repeated rape and physical assault until the victim submits to his or her fate as a sexual slave. Victims experience verbal threats, social isolation, and intimidation before they accept their role as a prostitute.[165]
For those enslaved in situations of forced labor, learned helplessness can also manifest itself through the trauma of living as a slave. Reports indicate that captivity for the person and financial gain of their owners adds additional psychological trauma. Victims are often cut off from all forms of social connection, as isolation allows the perpetrator to destroy the victim's sense of self and increase his or her dependence on the perpetrator.[159]
Human trafficking victims may experience complex trauma as a result of repeated cases of intimate relationship trauma over long periods of time including, but not limited to, sexual abuse, domestic violence, forced prostitution, or gang rape. Complex trauma involves multifaceted conditions of depression, anxiety, self-hatred, dissociation, substance abuse, self-destructive behaviors, medical and somatic concerns, despair, and revictimization. Psychology researchers report that, although similar to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Complex trauma is more expansive in diagnosis because of the effects of prolonged trauma.[166]
Victims of sex trafficking often get "branded"[167] by their traffickers or pimps. These tattoos usually consist of bar codes or the trafficker's name or rules. Even if a victim escapes their trafficker's control or gets rescued, these tattoos ar
Victims of sex trafficking often get "branded"[167] by their traffickers or pimps. These tattoos usually consist of bar codes or the trafficker's name or rules. Even if a victim escapes their trafficker's control or gets rescued, these tattoos are painful reminders of their past and results in emotional distress. To get these tattoos removed or covered-up can cost hundreds of dollars.[168][169]
Psychological reviews have shown that the chronic stress experienced by many victims of human trafficking can compromise the immune system.[160] Several studies found that chronic stressors (like trauma or loss) suppressed cellular and humoral immunity.[163] Victims may develop STDs and HIV/AIDS.[170] Perpetrators frequently use substance abuse as a means to control their victims, which leads to compromised health, self-destructive behavior, and long-term physical harm.[171] Furthermore, victims have reported treatment similar to torture, where their bodies are broken and beaten into submission.[171][172]
Children are especially vulnerable to these developmental and psychological consequences of trafficking due to their age. In order to gain complete control of the child, traffickers often destroy physical and mental health of the children through persistent physical and emotional abuse.[173] Victims experience severe trauma on a daily basis that devastates the healthy development of self-concept, self-worth, biological integrity, and cognitive functioning.[174] Children who grow up in constant environments of exploitation frequently exhibit antisocial behavior, over-sexualized behavior, self-harm, aggression, distrust of adults, dissociative disorders, substance abuse, complex trauma, and attention deficit disorders.[162][173][174][175] Stockholm syndrome is also a common problem for girls while they are trafficked, which can hinder them from both trying to escape, and moving forward in psychological recovery programs.[172]
Although 98% of the sex trade is composed of women and girls[172] there is an effort to gather empirical evidence about the psychological impact of abuse common in sex trafficking upon young boys.[174][176] Boys often will experience forms of post-traumatic stress disorder, but also additional stressors of social stigma of homosexuality associated with sexual abuse for boys, and externalization of blame, increased anger, and desire for revenge.
Sex trafficking increases the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.[178] The HIV/AIDS pandemic can be both a cause and a consequence of sex trafficking. On one hand, child-prostitutes are sought by customers because they are perceived as being less likely to be HIV positive, and this demand leads to child sex trafficking. On the other hand, trafficking leads to the proliferation of HIV, because victims cannot protect themselves properly and get infected.[179]
Economic impacts
As of 2018[update], profits from human trafficking were about around US$150 billion each year ranking it along with drug trafficking as one of the most profitable transnational crimes.[180]
The following is the breakdown of profits by sector: $99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation; $34 billion in construction, manufacturing, mining and utilities; $9 billion in agriculture, including forestry and fishing; $8 billion is saved annually by private households that employ domestic workers under conditions of forced labour. Although only 19% of victims are trafficked for sexual exploitation, it makes up 66% of the global earnings of human trafficking.[181] The average annual profits generated by each woman in forced sexual servitude ($100,000) is estimated to be six times more than the average profits generated by each trafficking victim worldwide ($21,800).[181]
The low risk, high reward dynamic has created a breeding ground for the human trafficking transactions to thrive. The traffickers expect to generate huge profit from the business yet face minimal punishment or legal consequence. Human trafficking is one of the most profitable illegal industries that is second to the drug trade. While drugs are consumables, human beings can be sold repeatedly from one employer to another. The costs are low, and the profits are extremely high. Similar to employers, consumers desire to pay the lowest price and receive the highest benefit. The demand for cheap goods stimulates employers to demand cheap labour from human traffickers. High demand drives the volume of supply.
Corporations maximise profit at the expense of trafficked labours. The low cost of illegal immigrant labour and trafficked labour in such enterprises tends to depress wages for legal labourers.[182]
According to the United Nations, human trafficking can be closely integrated into legal businesses, including the tourism industry, agriculture, hotel and airline operations, and leisure and entertainment businesses.[183][184]Related crimes associated with human trafficking reportedly include the following: fraud, extortion, racketeering, money laundering, bribery, drug trafficking, arms trafficking, car theft, migrant smuggling, kidnapping, document forgery, and gambling.[185][184]
Organised criminal groups intend to establish or invest in a wide range of legitimate businesses to conceal the profit earned from human trafficking. Businesses are set up to launder money and not necessarily to make profits. Legitimate businesses may be possibly held in competition against enterprises that are financially backed by human traffickers with illegally acquired
As of 2018[update], profits from human trafficking were about around US$150 billion each year ranking it along with drug trafficking as one of the most profitable transnational crimes.[180]
The following is the breakdown of profits by sector: $99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation; $34 billion in construction, manufacturing, mining and utilities; $9 billion in agriculture, including forestry and fishing; $8 billion is saved annually by private households that employ domestic workers under conditions of for
The following is the breakdown of profits by sector: $99 billion from commercial sexual exploitation; $34 billion in construction, manufacturing, mining and utilities; $9 billion in agriculture, including forestry and fishing; $8 billion is saved annually by private households that employ domestic workers under conditions of forced labour. Although only 19% of victims are trafficked for sexual exploitation, it makes up 66% of the global earnings of human trafficking.[181] The average annual profits generated by each woman in forced sexual servitude ($100,000) is estimated to be six times more than the average profits generated by each trafficking victim worldwide ($21,800).[181]
The low risk, high reward dynamic has created a breeding ground for the human trafficking transactions to thrive. The traffickers expect to generate huge profit from the business yet face minimal punishment or legal consequence. Human trafficking is one of the most profitable illegal industries that is second to the drug trade. While drugs are consumables, human beings can be sold repeatedly from one employer to another. The costs are low, and the profits are extremely high. Similar to employers, consumers desire to pay the lowest price and receive the highest benefit. The demand for cheap goods stimulates employers to demand cheap labour from human traffickers. High demand drives the volume of supply.
Corporations maximise profit at the expense of trafficked labours. The low cost of illegal immigrant labour and trafficked labour in such enterprises tends to depress wages for legal labourers.[182]
According to the United Nations, human trafficking can be closely integrated into legal businesses, including the tourism industry, agriculture, hotel and airline operations, and leisure and entertainment businesses.[183][184]Related crimes associated with human trafficking reportedly include the following: fraud, extortion, racketeering, money laundering, bribery, drug trafficking, arms trafficking, car theft, migrant smuggling, kidnapping, document forgery, and gambling.[185][184]
Organised criminal groups intend to establish or invest in a wide range of legitimate businesses to conceal the profit earned from human trafficking. Businesses are set up to launder money and not necessarily to make profits. Legitimate businesses may be possibly held in competition against enterprises that are financially backed by human traffickers with illegally acquired income. Fair competition may be undermined when human trafficking victims are exploited for cheap labour, driving down production costs, thereby indirectly causing a negative economic imbalance.[186]
By definition, human trafficking is an organised crime, executed into action by several actors at the source, transit and destination points of trafficking. Huge profits with minimal risk incur from this offence, that is exclusively meant for the gains of its organisers and the exploiters. The revenue accrued from the Illegal industry of human trafficking does not contribute to a nation's GDP. On the contrary, it is a loss to the economy and national security of a nation, as it is a vicious cycle where this illegal activity can be accountable for funding other illegal activities. The exploitation continuously generates large sums of illegal income for criminal networks, with a corresponding threat on other legitimate businesses which have positive economic impacts.[186]
Human trafficking is a national threat as it blocks national growth and development. Economic costs that have been associated with human trafficking include lost labour productivity, human resources, taxable revenues, and migrant remittances, as well as unlawfully redistributed wealth and heightened law enforcement and public health costs.[184]
Trafficking of migrants specifically has a negative impact on the potential financial gains of the migrants themselves, government and legitimate employers as income is redirected to traffickers and their associates. All indications lead to the fact that profits generated by related organized crime are significant and global. As a major component of organized crime, with significant financial influence, human trafficking has a complex and interlocking negative impact across human, social, political and economic spheres.[186]
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A forced marriage can qualify as a form of human trafficking in certain situations and certain countries, such as China and its Southeast Asian neighbours from which many women are moved to China, sometimes through promises of work, and forced to marry Chinese men. Whether such practices constitute exploitation and should be considered as trafficking is doubtful: ethnographic research with women from Myanmar
