Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh (/ˈhoʊ ˈtʃiː ˈmɪn/;[2] Vietnamese: [hò
tɕǐ mīɲ] ( listen), Saigon: [hò tɕǐ
mɨ̄n] ( listen); Chữ nôm: 胡志明; 19 May 1890 – 2
September 1969), born Nguyễn Sinh Cung,[3][4][5] also known as
Nguyễn Tất Thành and Nguyễn Ái Quốc, was a Vietnamese
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist revolutionary leader who was Chairman and First Secretary of
the Workers' Party of Vietnam. Hồ was also Prime Minister
(1945–55) and President (1945–69) of the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key figure in the foundation of the
Democratic Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam in 1945, as well as the People's Army
of
Vietnam

Vietnam (PAVN) and the Việt Cộng (NLF or VC) during the Vietnam
War.
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh led the Việt Minh independence movement from 1941
onward, establishing the Communist-ruled Democratic Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the
French Union
.svg/250px-Flag_of_France_(1794-1815).svg.png)
French Union in 1954 at the battle
of Điện Biên Phủ. He officially stepped down from power in 1965
due to health problems. After the war, Saigon, the former capital of
the Republic of Vietnam, was renamed
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh City.
Any description of Ho's life before he came to power in
Vietnam

Vietnam is
necessarily fraught with ambiguity. He is known to have used at least
50 and perhaps as many as 200 pseudonyms.[6] (Duiker says at least
75.)[7]:582 His place of birth and date of birth are products of
academic consensus since neither is known with certainty. "Official
biographies, and there are at least four, vary on names, dates, places
and other hard facts. Unofficial biographies vary even more
widely."[8]
Contents
1 Early life
1.1 First sojourn in France
1.2 In the United States
1.3 In the United Kingdom
2 Political education in France
3 In the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and China
4 Independence movement
4.1 Birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
5 Becoming president and
Vietnam

Vietnam War
6 Personal life
7 Death
8 Legacy and personality cult
9 International influence
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Early life[edit]
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh was born and given the name of Nguyễn Sinh Cung (as
appeared in a letter from the director of Collège Quốc học, dated
7 August 1908),[3][4][5] in 1890 in the village of
Hoàng Trù (the
name of the local temple near Làng Sen), his mother's village.
Although this is his generally accepted birth year, at various times
he used five different birth years; 1890,[9] 1891,[10] 1892,[11]
1894[12] and 1895.[13] From 1895, he grew up in his father Nguyễn
Sinh Sắc (Nguyễn Sinh Huy)'s village of Làng Sen, Kim Liên, Nam
Đàn, Nghệ An Province. He had three siblings: his sister Bạch
Liên (or Nguyễn Thị Thanh), a clerk in the French Army; his
brother
Nguyễn Sinh Khiêm (or Nguyễn Tất Đạt), a geomancer
and traditional herbalist; and another brother (Nguyễn Sinh Nhuận)
who died in his infancy. As a young child, Cung studied with his
father before more formal classes with a scholar named Vuong Thuc Do.
Cung quickly mastered Chinese writing, a prerequisite for any serious
study of Confucianism, while honing his colloquial Vietnamese
writing.[7]:21 In addition to his studious endeavors, he was fond of
adventure, and loved to fly kites and go fishing.[7]:21 Following
Confucian tradition, at the age of 10, his father gave him a new name:
Nguyễn Tất Thành ("Nguyễn the Accomplished"). Although he had a
terrible childhood, between the ages of 14 and 18 he was able to study
at a grammar school in Hue.[citation needed]
Thành's father was a Confucian scholar and teacher, and later an
imperial magistrate in the small remote district of Binh Khe (Qui
Nhơn). He was demoted for abuse of power after an influential local
figure died several days after having received 102 strokes of the cane
as punishment for an infraction.[7]:21Thành's father was eligible to
serve in the imperial bureaucracy but refused because it meant serving
the French.[14] This exposed Thành to rebellion at a young age and
seemed to be the norm for the province where Thành came of age. In
deference to his father, Thành received a French education, attended
lycée in Huế, the alma mater of his later disciples, Phạm Văn
Đồng and
Võ Nguyên Giáp
.jpg)
Võ Nguyên Giáp and his later enemy, Ngô Đình Diệm.
First sojourn in France[edit]
Previously, it was believed that Thành was involved in an
anti-slavery (anti-corvée) demonstration of poor peasants in
Huế

Huế in
May 1908, which endangered his student status at Collège Quốc
học. However, a document from the
Centre des archives d'Outre-mer

Centre des archives d'Outre-mer in
France shows that he was admitted to Collège Quốc học on 8 August
1908, which was several months after the anti-corvée demonstration
(9–13 April 1908).[4] The exaggeration of revolutionary credentials
was common among Vietnamese communist leaders, as shown in Tôn Đức
Thắng's falsified participation in the 1919 Black Sea revolt. Later
in life, Hồ would claim the 1908 revolt had been the moment when his
revolutionary outlook emerged, but his application to the French
Colonial Administrative School in 1911 undermines this version of
events. He chose to leave school in order to find a chance to go
abroad. Because his father had been dismissed, he no longer had any
hope for a governmental scholarship and went southward, taking a
position at Dục Thanh school in
Phan Thiết

Phan Thiết for about six months,
then traveled to Saigon.
Thành worked as a kitchen helper on a French steamer, the Amirale de
Latouche-Tréville while using the alias "Văn Ba". The steamer
departed on 5 June 1911 and arrived in Marseille, France on 5 July
1911. The ship then left for Le Havre and Dunkirk, returning to
Marseille

Marseille in mid-September. There he applied for the French Colonial
Administrative School but his application was rejected. Instead, he
decided to begin traveling the world by working on ships and visited
many countries from 1911 to 1917.
In the United States[edit]
In 1912, while working as the cook's helper on a ship, Thành traveled
to the United States. From 1912–13, he may have lived in New York
City (Harlem) and Boston, where he claimed to have worked as a baker
at the Parker House Hotel. The only evidence that Thành was in the
United States

United States is a letter to French colonial administrators dated 15
December 1912 and postmarked
New York City

New York City (but he gave as his address
Poste Restante in Le Havre and stated that he was a sailor) [15]:20
and a postcard to
Phan Chu Trinh in
Paris

Paris where he mentioned working
at the Parker House Hotel. Inquiries to the Parker House management
revealed no records of his ever having worked there.[7]:51 Among a
series of menial jobs, he claimed to have worked for a wealthy family
in
Brooklyn

Brooklyn between 1917–18, and for
General Motors

General Motors as a line
manager.[16]:46 It is believed that while in the United States, he
made contact with Korean nationalists, an experience that developed
his political outlook, but Sophie Quinn-Judge admits that this is "in
the realm of conjecture".[15]:20
In the United Kingdom[edit]
At various points between 1913 and 1919, Thành claimed to have lived
in West Ealing, and later in Crouch End, Hornsey. He reportedly worked
as either a chef or dish washer (reports vary) at the Drayton Court
Hotel in West Ealing.[17] It is claimed that he trained as a pastry
chef under
Auguste Escoffier

Auguste Escoffier at the Carlton Hotel in the Haymarket,
Westminster, but there is no evidence to support this.[15]:25 [18]
However, the wall of New Zealand House, home of the New Zealand High
Commission, which now stands on the site of the Carlton Hotel,
displays a blue plaque, stating that
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh worked there in
1913. Thành was also employed as a pastry boy on the
Newhaven–Dieppe ferry route in 1913.[19]
Political education in France[edit]
Ho Chi Minh, 1921
From 1919 to 1923, while living in France, Thành began to show an
interest in politics, being influenced by his friend and Socialist
Party of France comrade Marcel Cachin. Thành claimed to have arrived
in
Paris

Paris from
London

London in 1917, but the French police only had documents
recording his arrival in June 1919.[15] He joined a group of
Vietnamese nationalists in
Paris

Paris whose leaders were Phan Chu Trinh,
Phan Văn Trường, and Nguyễn Thế Truyền. They had been
publishing newspaper articles advocating for Vietnamese independence
under the pseudonym Nguyễn Ái Quốc ("Nguyễn the Patriot") prior
to the arrival of Nguyễn Tất Thành in
Paris

Paris in 1919.[20]
Following World War I, the group petitioned for recognition of the
civil rights of the
Vietnamese people

Vietnamese people in
French Indochina

French Indochina to the
Western powers at the Versailles peace talks, but was ignored.[21]
Citing the principle of self-determination outlined prior to the peace
accords, they requested the allied powers to end French colonial rule
of
Vietnam

Vietnam and ensure the formation of an independent government.
Prior to the conference, the group sent their letter to allied
leaders, including Prime Minister
Georges Clemenceau

Georges Clemenceau and U.S.
President Woodrow Wilson. They were unable to obtain consideration at
Versailles, but the episode would later help establish Nguyễn Ái
Quốc as a symbol of the anti-colonial movement at home in
Vietnam.[22] Since Nguyễn Tất Thành was the public face behind
the publication of the document (although it was written by Phan Văn
Trường),[23] he soon became known as Nguyễn Ái Quốc and first
used the name in September during an interview with a Chinese
newspaper correspondent.[7]
A plaque in Compoint Lane, District 17,
Paris

Paris indicates where Ho Chi
Minh lived from 1921–1923
Many authors have speculated that 1919 was a lost "Wilsonian moment"
when the future
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh could have adopted a pro-American and
less radical position if only President Wilson had received him.
However, the available evidence shows that at the time of the
Versailles Conference he was committed to a Socialist program. While
the conference was ongoing, Nguyễn Ái Quốc was already delivering
speeches on the prospects of
Bolshevism
.jpg/646px-Presidium_of_the_9th_Congress_of_the_Russian_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks).jpg)
Bolshevism in Asia and was attempting to
persuade French Socialists to join Vladimir Lenin's Third Communist
International.[24]
In December 1920, Quốc officially became a representative to the
Congress of Tours of the Socialist Party of France, voted for the
Third International

Third International and was a founding member of the Parti Communiste
Français (FCP). Taking a position in the Colonial Committee of the
PCF, he tried to draw his comrades' attention towards people in French
colonies including Indochina, but his efforts were often unsuccessful.
During this period he began to write journal articles and short
stories as well as running his Vietnamese nationalist group. In May
1922, Quốc wrote an article for a French magazine criticizing the
use of English words by French sportswriters.[1]:21 The article
implored Prime Minister
Raymond Poincaré

Raymond Poincaré to outlaw such
Franglais

Franglais as
le manager, le round and le knock-out. While living in Paris, he
reportedly had a relationship with a dressmaker named Marie Brière.
His articles and speeches caught the attention of Dmitry Manuilsky,
who would soon sponsor his trip to the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and under whose
tutelage he would become a high-ranking member of the Soviet
Comintern.[25]:23-24
In the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and China[edit]
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v
t
e
In 1923, Quốc left
Paris

Paris for
Moscow

Moscow carrying a passport with the
name Chen Vang, a Chinese merchant,[7]:86 where he was employed by the
Comintern, studied at the
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist University of the Toilers of the
East,[7]:92[26] and participated in the Fifth
Comintern

Comintern Congress in
June 1924, before arriving in Canton (present-day Guangzhou), China,
in November 1924 using the name Ly Thuy.
External video
Booknotes interview with
William Duiker on Hồ Chí Minh: A Life, 12
November 2000, C-SPAN
In 1925–26, Quốc organized "Youth Education Classes" and
occasionally gave socialist lectures to Vietnamese revolutionary young
people living in Canton at the Whampoa Military Academy. These young
people would become the seeds of a new revolutionary, pro-communist
movement in
Vietnam

Vietnam several years later. According to William Duiker,
he lived with and married a Chinese woman,
Zeng Xueming

Zeng Xueming (Tăng Tuyết
Minh), on 18 October 1926.[1] When his comrades objected to the match,
he told them: "I will get married despite your disapproval because I
need a woman to teach me the language and keep house."[1] She was 21
and he was 36. They married in the same place where
Zhou Enlai
.jpg/440px-Zhou_Enlai_in_1940s(color).jpg)
Zhou Enlai had
married earlier, and then lived in the residence of a
Comintern

Comintern agent,
Mikhail Borodin.[1]
Hoàng Văn Chí

Hoàng Văn Chí argued that in June 1925, Hồ betrayed Phan Bội
Châu, the famous leader of a rival revolutionary faction and his
father's old friend, to French Secret Service agents in
Shanghai

Shanghai for
100,000 piastres.[27] A source states that Hồ later claimed he did
it because he expected Châu's trial to stir up anti-French sentiment
and because he needed the money to establish a communist
organization.[27] In Ho Chi Minh: A Life,
William Duiker considered
but rejected this hypothesis.[7]:126–128 Other sources claim that
Nguyễn Thượng Huyện was responsible for Chau's capture. Chau,
sentenced to lifetime house arrest, never denounced Quốc.
Chiang Kai-shek's 1927 anti-communist coup triggered a new era of
exile for Quốc. He left Canton again in April 1927 and returned to
Moscow, spending part of the summer of 1927 recuperating from
tuberculosis in the Crimea, before returning to
Paris

Paris once more in
November. He then returned to Asia by way of Brussels, Berlin,
Switzerland, and Italy, where he sailed to Bangkok, Thailand, arriving
in July 1928. "Although we have been separated for almost a year, our
feelings for each other do not have to be said in order to be felt",
he reassured Minh in an intercepted letter.[1] In this period, he
served as a senior agent undertaking
Comintern

Comintern activities in Southeast
Asia.
Quốc remained in Thailand, staying in the Thai village of
Nachok,[1]:44 and xiii until late 1929 when he moved on to India, then
Shanghai. In early 1930, in Hong Kong, he chaired a meeting with
representatives from two Vietnamese communist parties in order to
merge them into a unified organization,
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Party of Vietnam. In
June 1931, he was arrested in Hong Kong. To reduce French pressure for
extradition, it was (falsely) announced in 1932 that Quốc had
died.[1]: 57–58 The British quietly released him in January 1933. He
moved to the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and in
Moscow

Moscow studied and taught at the
Lenin Institute.[28] It is said that in this period he lost his
positions in the
Comintern

Comintern because of a concern that he had betrayed
the organization. His influence among his Vietnamese comrades faded
significantly. This view, however, has been refuted by Ton That
Thien's research as well as the work of Hong Ha, who researched the
Comintern

Comintern archives. Contrary to the beliefs of many students of Ho, he
was a member of the inner cricle of the Comintern, a protégé of
Dmitry Manuilsky

Dmitry Manuilsky and a member in good standing of the Comintern
throughout the turbulent purges of Stalin.[25][29]
In 1938, Quốc returned to China and served as an advisor to the
Chinese Communist

Chinese Communist armed forces, which later forced China's government
into exile on Taiwan.[15] He was also the senior
Comintern

Comintern agent in
charge of Asian affairs.[25]:39 Around 1940, Quốc began regularly
using the name "Hồ Chí Minh",[15] a Vietnamese name combining a
common Vietnamese surname (Hồ, 胡) with a given name meaning "He
Who has been enlightened" (from Sino-Vietnamese 志 明: Chí meaning
'will' (or spirit) and Minh meaning "bright").[7]:248–49
Independence movement[edit]
In 1941, Ho returned to
Vietnam

Vietnam to lead the
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh independence
movement. The Japanese occupation of Indochina that year, the first
step toward invasion of the rest of Southeast Asia, created an
opportunity for patriotic Vietnamese.[14] The "men in black" were a
10,000 member guerrilla force that operated with the Viet Minh.[30] He
oversaw many successful military actions against the
Vichy French
.svg/250px-Flag_of_France_(1794-1815).svg.png)
Vichy French and
Japanese occupation of
Vietnam

Vietnam during World War II, supported closely
but clandestinely by the
United States

United States Office of Strategic Services,
and later against the French bid to reoccupy the country (1946–54).
He was jailed in China by Chiang Kai-shek's local authorities before
being rescued by Chinese Communists.[1]:198 Following his release in
1943, he returned to Vietnam.
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh (fifth from left, standing) with the OSS in 1945
In April 1945, Ho met with the OSS agent
Archimedes Patti and offered
to provide intelligence to the allies provided that he could have "a
line of communication with the allies."[31] The OSS agreed to this and
later sent a military team of OSS members to train Ho's men and Ho
himself was treated for malaria and dysentery by an OSS doctor.[32]
Following the
August Revolution

August Revolution (1945) organized by the Viet Minh, Ho
became Chairman of the Provisional Government (Premier of the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and issued a Proclamation of
Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.[33] Although he
convinced Emperor
Bảo Đại

Bảo Đại to abdicate, his government was not
recognized by any country. He repeatedly petitioned American President
Harry S. Truman

Harry S. Truman for support for Vietnamese independence,[34] citing
the Atlantic Charter, but Truman never responded.[35]
Several sources relate how,[36] during a power struggle in 1945, the
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh killed members of rival groups, such as the leader of the
Constitutional Party, Bui Quang Chieu, the head of the Party for
Independence, and Ngo Dinh Diem's brother, Ngo Dinh Khoi.[37] Ho, when
asked by a reporter about the murder of Ta Thu Thau, a leading
Trotskyist and personal friend, answered matter-of-factly, "Anyone who
does not follow the line determined by me will be smashed."[38][39]
In 1946, future Israeli Prime Minister
David Ben-Gurion

David Ben-Gurion and Ho became
acquainted when they stayed at the same hotel in Paris.[40][41] Ho
offered Ben-Gurion a Jewish home-in-exile in Vietnam.[40][41]
Ben-Gurion declined, telling Ho: "I am certain we shall be able to
establish a Jewish Government in Palestine."[40][41]
In 1946, when Ho traveled outside of the country, his subordinates
imprisoned 2,500 non-communist nationalists and forced 6,000 others to
flee.[42] Hundreds of political opponents were jailed or exiled in
July 1946, notably members of the Nationalist Party of
Vietnam

Vietnam and the
Dai Viet National Party, after a failed attempt to raise a coup
against the Vietminh government.[43] All rival political parties were
hereafter banned and local governments were purged[44] to minimize
opposition later on. However, it was noted that the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam's first Congress had over two-thirds of its
members come from non-
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh political factions, some without an
election. NPV party leader
Nguyễn Hải Thần was named Vice
President.[45] They also held four out of ten ministerial
positions.[46]
Birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam[edit]
On 2 September 1945, following Emperor Bảo Đại's abdication, Ho
read the Declaration of Independence of Vietnam,[47] under the name of
the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In Saigon, with violence between
rival Vietnamese factions and French forces increasing, the British
commander, General Sir Douglas Gracey, declared martial law. On 24
September, the
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh leaders responded with a call for a general
strike.[48]
In September 1945, a force of 200,000
Republic of China

Republic of China Army troops
arrived in
Hanoi

Hanoi to accept the surrender of the Japanese occupiers in
northern Indochina. Ho made a compromise with their general, Lu Han,
to dissolve the
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Party and to hold an election which would
yield a coalition government. When Chiang forced the French to give
the French concessions in
Shanghai

Shanghai back to China in exchange for
withdrawing from northern Indochina, Ho had no choice but to sign an
agreement with France on 6 March 1946, in which
Vietnam

Vietnam would be
recognized as an autonomous state in the Indochinese Federation and
the French Union. The agreement soon broke down. The purpose of the
agreement, for both the French and Vietminh, was for Chiang's army to
leave North Vietnam. Fighting broke out in the North soon after the
Chinese left.
Historian Professor Liam Kelley of the University of Hawaii at Manoa
on his Le Minh Khai's SEAsian History Blog challenged the authenticity
of the alleged quote where
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh said he would rather sniff
French shit than eat Chinese shit, noting that Stanley Karnow provided
no source for the extended quote attributed to Ho in his 1983 Vietnam:
A History, and that the original quote was most likely forged by the
Frenchman Paul Mus in his 1952 book Viêt-Nam: Sociologie d’une
Guerre, Mus was a supporter of French colonialism in
Vietnam

Vietnam and Ho
knew that there was no danger of Chinese troops staying in Vietnam,
and in fact the Vietnamese at the time were busy spreading anti-French
propaganda as evidence of French atrocities in
Vietnam

Vietnam emerged, while
Ho showed no qualms about accepting Chinese aid after 1949.[49][50]
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh (right) with
Võ Nguyên Giáp
.jpg)
Võ Nguyên Giáp (left) in Hanoi, 1945
The
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh then collaborated with French colonial forces to
massacre supporters of the Vietnamese nationalist movements in
1945-6.[51] The Communists eventually suppressed all non-Communist
parties but failed to secure a peace deal with France. In the final
days of 1946, after a year of diplomatic failure and many concessions
in agreements such as the Dalat and Fontainebleau conferences, the
Democratic Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam government found that war was
inevitable. The bombardment of Haiphong by French forces at
Hanoi

Hanoi only
strengthened the belief that France had no intention of allowing an
autonomous, independent state in Vietnam. On 19 December 1946, Ho,
representing his government, declared war against the French Union,
marking the beginning of the Indochina War.[52] The
Vietnam

Vietnam National
Army, by then mostly armed with machetes and muskets immediately
attacked, waging assault against French positions, smoking them out
with straw bundled with chili pepper, destroying armored vehicles with
"lunge mines" (a hollow-charge warhead on the end of a pole, detonated
by thrusting the charge against the side of a tank; typically a
suicide weapon[53]) and Molotov cocktails, holding off attackers by
using roadblocks, landmines and gravel. After two months of fighting,
the exhausted
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh forces withdrew after systematically
destroying any valuable infrastructure. Ho was reported to be captured
by a group of French soldiers led by
Jean-Étienne Valluy at Việt
Bắc in Operation Lea. The person in question turned out to be a Viet
Minh advisor, who was later killed trying to escape. According to
journalist Bernard Fall, after fighting the French for several years,
Ho decided to negotiate a truce. The French negotiators arrived at the
meeting site: a mud hut with a thatched roof. Inside they found a long
table with chairs and were surprised to discover in one corner of the
room a silver ice bucket containing ice and a bottle of good Champagne
which should have indicated that Ho expected the negotiations to
succeed. One demand by the French was the return to French custody of
a number of Japanese military officers (who had been helping the
Vietnamese armed forces by training them in the use of weapons of
Japanese origin), in order for them to stand trial for war crimes
committed during World War II. Ho replied that the Japanese officers
were allies and friends whom he could not betray. Then he walked out,
to seven more years of war.[54]
In February 1950, after the successful removal of the French border's
blockade,[55] Ho met with Stalin and
Mao Zedong
.jpg/440px-Mao_Zedong_1963_(cropped).jpg)
Mao Zedong in
Moscow

Moscow after the
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union recognized his government. They all agreed that China
would be responsible for backing the Viet Minh.[56] Mao's emissary to
Moscow

Moscow stated in August that China planned to train 60,000–70,000
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh in the near future.[57] The road to the outside world was
open for
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh forces to receive additional supplies which would
allow them to escalate the fight against the French regime throughout
Indochina. At the outset of the conflict, Ho reportedly told a French
visitor, "You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yours.
But even at those odds, you will lose and I will win."[58] In 1954,
after the crushing defeat of
French Union
.svg/250px-Flag_of_France_(1794-1815).svg.png)
French Union forces at Battle of Dien
Bien Phu, France was forced to give up its fight against the Viet
Minh. The
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh murdered between 100,000 and 150,000 civilians
during the war.[59]
Becoming president and
Vietnam

Vietnam War[edit]
Effigies of "Charles DeGaulle and
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh are hanged" by
Students demonstration in Saigon, July 1964, observing the tenth
anniversary of the July 1954 Geneva Agreements
The 1954 Geneva Accords concluded between France and the Viet Minh,
allowing the latter's forces to regroup in the North whilst
anti-communist groups settled in the South. Ho's Democratic Republic
of
Vietnam

Vietnam relocated to
Hanoi

Hanoi and became the government of North
Vietnam, a communist-led one-party state.
Following the Geneva Accords, there was to be a 300-day period in
which people could freely move between the two regions of Vietnam,
later known as South
Vietnam

Vietnam and North Vietnam. During the 300 days,
Diệm and U.S.
CIA

CIA adviser Colonel
Edward Lansdale

Edward Lansdale staged a campaign
to convince people to move to South Vietnam. The campaign was
particularly focused on Vietnam's Catholics, who were to provide
Diệm's power base in his later years, with the use of the slogan
"God has gone south". Between 800,000 and 1,000,000 people
migrated to the south, mostly Catholics. At the start of 1955, French
Indochina was dissolved, leaving Diệm in temporary control of the
south.[60][61]
All the parties at Geneva called for reunification elections, but
could not agree on the details. Recently appointed
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh acting
foreign minister Pham Van Dong proposed elections under the
supervision of "local commissions". The US, with the support of
Britain and the Associated States of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia,
suggested UN supervision. This plan was rejected by Soviet
representative Vyacheslav Molotov, who argued for a commission
composed of an equal number of communist and non-communist members,
which could determine "important" issues only by unanimous
agreement.[62]:89, 91, 97 The negotiators were unable to agree on a
date for the elections for reunification. The DRV argued that the
elections should be held within 6 months of the ceasefire, while the
Western allies sought to have no deadline. Molotov proposed June 1955,
then later softened this to any time in 1955 and finally July
1956.[63]:610 The Diem government supported reunification elections,
but only with effective international supervision, arguing that
genuinely free elections were otherwise impossible in the totalitarian
North.[62]:107 By the afternoon of 20 July the remaining outstanding
issues were resolved as the parties agreed that the partition line
should be at the 17th parallel and that the elections for a reunified
government should be held in July 1956, two years after the
ceasefire.[63]:604 The "Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in
Vietnam" was signed only by French and
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh military commands,
with no participation or consultation of the State of Vietnam.[62]:97
Based on a proposal by Chinese delegation head Zhou Enlai, an
International Control Commission (ICC) chaired by India, with Canada
and Poland as members, was placed in charge of supervising the
ceasefire.[63]:603[62]:90,97 Because issues were to be decided
unanimously, Poland's presence in the ICC provided the communists with
effective veto power over supervision of the treaty.[62]:97–98 The
unsigned "Final Declaration of the Geneva Conference" called for
reunification elections, which the majority of delegates expected to
be supervised by the ICC. The
Viet Minh
.svg/440px-Flag_of_North_Vietnam_(1945-1955).svg.png)
Viet Minh never accepted ICC authority
over such elections, insisting that the ICC's "competence was to be
limited to the supervision and control of the implementation of the
Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities by both parties."[62]:99 Of
the nine nations represented, only the
United States

United States and the State of
Vietnam

Vietnam refused to accept the declaration. U.S. undersecretary of
state
Walter Bedell Smith

Walter Bedell Smith delivered a "unilateral declaration" of the
US position, reiterating: "We shall seek to achieve unity through free
elections supervised by the United Nations to ensure that they are
conducted fairly."[62]:95,99–100
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh with East German sailors in
Stralsund
,_by_Klugschnacker_in_Wikipedia_(7).JPG/580px-Stralsund,_Blick_von_der_Marienkirche_(2013-07-07-),_by_Klugschnacker_in_Wikipedia_(7).JPG)
Stralsund harbor during his
1957 visit to East Germany
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh with members of the East German Young Pioneers near
Berlin, 1957
Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted
various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction" and "land
reform", which resulted in significant political oppression. During
the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a
ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which
extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions.
Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta
area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by
scholars at the time.[62]:143[64][65][66] However, declassified
documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the
number of executions was much lower than reported at the time,
although likely greater than 13,500.[67][68][69]
As early as June 1956 the idea of overthrowing the South Vietnamese
government was presented at a politburo meeting. In 1959, Ho began
urging the Politburo to send aid to the
Viet Cong

Viet Cong in South
Vietnam

Vietnam and
a "people's war" on the South was approved at a session in January
1959 and this decision was confirmed by the Politburo in
March.[70][71]
North Vietnam

North Vietnam invaded
Laos

Laos in July 1959 aided by the
Pathet Lao, and used 30,000 men to build a network of supply and
reinforcement routes running through
Laos

Laos that became known as the Ho
Chi Minh trail[72]. It allowed the North to send manpower and materiel
to the
Viet Cong

Viet Cong with much less exposure to South Vietnamese forces,
achieving a considerable advantage.[73] To counter the accusation that
North Vietnam

North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the
Việt Cộng was stressed in communist propaganda. North Vietnam
created the National Liberation Front of South
Vietnam

Vietnam in December
1960 as a "united front", or political branch of the Viet Cong
intended to encourage the participation of non-communists.[70][71]
At the end of 1959, conscious that the national election would never
be held and that Diem intended to purge opposing forces (mostly
ex-Viet Minh) from the South Vietnamese government, Ho informally
chose
Lê Duẩn
.jpg)
Lê Duẩn to become the next party leader. This was interpreted
by Western analysts as a loss of influence for Ho, who was said to
actually have preferred the more moderate
Võ Nguyên Giáp
.jpg)
Võ Nguyên Giáp for the
position.[74]
Lê Duẩn
.jpg)
Lê Duẩn was officially named party leader in 1960,
leaving Ho to function in a secondary role, as head of state and
member of the Politburo. Ho nevertheless maintained considerable
influence in the government. Tố Hữu, Lê Duẩn, Trường Chinh,
and
Phạm Văn Đồng

Phạm Văn Đồng often shared dinner with him, and all of them
remained key figures throughout and after the war. In 1963, Ho
purportedly corresponded with South Vietnamese President Diem in hopes
of achieving a negotiated peace.[1]:174
Between 1961 and 1963, 40,000 communist soldiers infiltrated into
South
Vietnam

Vietnam from the North.[70] In late 1964, PAVN combat troops
were sent southwest into officially neutral
Laos

Laos and Cambodia.[75]
According to Chen Jian, during the mid-to-late 1960s, Le Duan
permitted 320,000 Chinese volunteers into
North Vietnam

North Vietnam to help build
infrastructure for the country, thereby freeing a similar number of
PAVN personnel to go south.[76] However, there are no sources from
Vietnam, the US, or the USSR that confirm the number of Chinese troops
stationed in North Vietnam. By early 1965, U.S. combat troops began
arriving in South Vietnam, first to protect the airbases around Chu
Lai and Da Nang, later to take on most of the fight, as "More and more
American troops were put in to replace
Saigon

Saigon troops who could not, or
would not, get involved in the fighting".[77]
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh meeting a North Vietnamese circus troupe after their
performance at the Presidential Palace, Hanoi, 1967.
As fighting escalated, widespread aerial and artillery bombardment all
over
North Vietnam

North Vietnam by the U.S. Air Force and Navy begin with Operation
Rolling Thunder. In July 1967, Ho and most of the Politburo of Workers
Party of
Vietnam

Vietnam met in a high-profile conference where they concluded
the war had fallen into a stalemate, as the U.S. military presence
forced the People's Army of
Vietnam

Vietnam to expend the majority of their
resources simply maintaining the
Ho Chi Minh trail

Ho Chi Minh trail rather than in
reinforcing their comrade's ranks in the South. With Ho's permission,
the
Viet Cong

Viet Cong planned a massive
Tet Offensive

Tet Offensive that would commence on
31 January 1968, with the aim of taking much of the South by force and
administering a heavy blow to the U.S. military. The offensive was
executed at great cost and with heavy casualties on NLF's political
branches and armed forces. The scope of the action shocked the world,
which until then had been assured that the Communists were "on the
ropes". The optimistic spin that the U.S. military command had
sustained for years was no longer credible. The bombing of Northern
Vietnam

Vietnam and the
Ho Chi Minh trail

Ho Chi Minh trail was halted, and U.S and Vietnamese
negotiators held discussions on how the war might be ended. From then
on, Ho and his government's strategy, based on the idea of "avoiding
conventional warfare and facing the might of the U.S. Army, which
would wear them down eventually, while merely prolonging the conflict
would lead to eventual acceptance of Hanoi's terms" materialized.
Personal life[edit]
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh watching a football game in his favorite fashion. His
closest comrade – Prime Minister
Phạm Văn Đồng

Phạm Văn Đồng is the person
sitting next to him in the right corner.
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh meets school children in 1960
Other than a politician, Ho was also a writer, journalist, poet and
polyglot. His father was a scholar and teacher, who received a high
degree in the
Nguyễn dynasty
_nhà_Nguyễn,_1802-1885.png/250px-Long_Tinh_Kỳ_(Dragon_Star_Flag)_nhà_Nguyễn,_1802-1885.png)
Nguyễn dynasty Imperial examination; Ho was taught to
master
Classical Chinese

Classical Chinese at a young age. Before the August Revolution,
he often wrote poetry in
Chữ Hán

Chữ Hán (the Vietnamese name for the
Chinese writing system). One of those is Poems from the Prison Diary
made when he was imprisoned by the police of the Republic of China.
This poetry chronicle is
Vietnam

Vietnam National Treasure No. 10, and was
translated into many languages. It is used in Vietnamese high
schools.[78] After
Vietnam

Vietnam gained independence from France, the new
government exclusively promoted
Chữ Quốc Ngữ

Chữ Quốc Ngữ (Vietnamese writing
system in Latin characters) to eliminate illiteracy. Ho started to
create more poems in the modern
Vietnamese language

Vietnamese language for dissemination
to a wider range of readers. After he became President until the
appearance of serious health problems, a short poem of his was
regularly published in the newspaper
Nhân Dân

Nhân Dân
Tết

Tết (Lunar new year)
edition to encourage his people in working, studying or fighting
Americans in the new year.
Because of staying nearly 30 years in exile, Ho could speak fluently,
as well as read and write professionally, in French, English, Russian,
Cantonese and Mandarin in addition to his mother tongue Vietnamese.[7]
In the 1920s, he was bureau chief/editor of many newspapers which he
established to criticize French Colonial Government of Indochina and
serving communism propaganda purposes. Examples are Le Paria (The
Pariah) first published in
Paris

Paris 1922 or Thanh Nien (Youth) first
published on 21 June 1925 (21 June was named by The Socialist Republic
of
Vietnam

Vietnam Government as
Vietnam

Vietnam Revolutionary Journalism Day). In
many state official visits to
Soviet Union
.jpg/460px-Soviet_Union-1964-stamp-Chapayev_(film).jpg)
Soviet Union and China, he often talked
directly to their communist leaders without interpreters especially
about top secret information. While being interviewed by Western
journalists, he used French.[79] His Vietnamese had a strong accent
from his birthplace in the central province of Nghệ An, but could be
widely understood through the country.[note 1]
Stilt house of "Uncle Ho" in Hanoi
As president, Ho held formal receptions for foreign heads of state and
ambassadors at the Presidential Palace, but he personally did not live
there. He ordered the building of a stilt house at the back of the
palace, which is today known as the Presidential Palace Historical
Site. His hobbies (according to his secretary Vũ Kỳ) included
reading, gardening, feeding fish (many of which are still[when?]
living) and visiting schools and children's homes.[81]
Ho remained in
Hanoi

Hanoi during his final years, demanding the
unconditional withdrawal of all non-Vietnamese troops in South
Vietnam. By 1969, with negotiations still dragging on, Ho's health
began to deteriorate from multiple health problems, including diabetes
which prevented him from participating in further active politics.
However, he insisted that his forces in the south continue fighting
until all of
Vietnam

Vietnam was reunited under his regime regardless of the
length of time that it might take, believing that time was on his
side.[81]
Death[edit]
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, Hanoi.
With the outcome of the
Vietnam

Vietnam War still in question, Hồ Chí Minh
died at 09:47 on the morning of 2 September 1969 from heart failure at
his home in Hanoi, aged 79. His embalmed body is currently on display
in a mausoleum in
Ba Đình Square

Ba Đình Square in
Hanoi

Hanoi despite his will stating
that he wanted to be cremated.[7]:565 News of his death was withheld
from the North Vietnamese public for nearly 48 hours because he had
died on the anniversary of the founding of the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam. A week of mourning for his death was decreed in North Vietnam
from September 4 to 11, 1969.[82] He was not initially replaced as
president, but a "collective leadership" composed of several ministers
and military leaders took over, known as the Politburo.
During North Vietnam's final campaign, a famous song written by
composer Huy Thuc was often sung by People's Army of
Vietnam

Vietnam soldiers,
"Bác vẫn cùng chúng cháu hành quân" ("You are still marching
with us, Uncle Ho").[83] Six years after his death, at the Fall of
Saigon, several PAVN tanks in
Saigon

Saigon displayed a poster with those
same words on it. Veteran Australian journalist
Denis Warner wrote in
The Sun News-Pictorial on 1 May, 1975, that "When the North Vietnamese
marched into
Saigon

Saigon yesterday, they were led by a man who wasn't
there". [84]
Legacy and personality cult[edit]
See also: Nông Thị Xuân, Nông Đức Mạnh, Nguyễn Thị Minh
Khai, and Zeng Xueming
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh statue outside
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh City Hall, Ho Chi Minh
City
Temple devoted to Nguyễn Sinh Sắc, Hồ Chí Minh's father
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh statue and the Vietnamese flag
The former capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was officially renamed Ho
Chi Minh City on 2 July 1976[85] by the new VCP-controlled National
Assembly of Vietnam. However, the name provokes strong anti-communist
feeling in a substantial number of Vietnamese. Many Vietnamese,
especially those living abroad, continue to refer to the city as Sài
Gòn, in rejection of the new communist-imposed name and in honor of
the former capital of anti-communist Republic of Vietnam.[86]
Ho's embalmed body is on display in
Hanoi

Hanoi in a granite mausoleum
modeled after Lenin's Tomb in Moscow. Streams of people queue each
day, sometimes for hours, to pass his body in silence. This is
reminiscent of other
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist leaders like Vladimir Lenin, Mao
Zedong, Kim il-sung, and Kim Jong-il.
The
Ho Chi Minh Museum

Ho Chi Minh Museum in
Hanoi

Hanoi is dedicated to his life and work.
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh holding his god-daughter, baby Elizabeth (Babette)
Aubrac, and Elizabeth's mother,
Lucie Aubrac

Lucie Aubrac in 1946
Shrine devoted to Ho Chi Minh
In
Vietnam

Vietnam today, Ho's image appears on the front of all Vietnamese
currency notes. His portrait and bust are featured prominently in most
of Vietnam's public buildings, in classrooms (both public and private
schools) and in some families' altars. There is at least one temple
dedicated to him, built in
Vĩnh Long

Vĩnh Long shortly after his death, in
1970, in Viet Cong-controlled areas.[87] His birthday (19 May) is
celebrated as an official state holiday.[88]
The communist regime has maintained a personality cult around Ho since
the 1950s in the North, and later extended it to the South, which it
sees as a crucial part in their propaganda campaign about Ho and the
Party's past. Ho is frequently honored in schools to schoolchildren.
He is even glorified to a religious status as an "immortal saint" by
the Vietnamese
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Party, and some people worship the President,
according to a BBC report.[86]
Publications about Ho's non-celibacy are banned in Vietnam, because
the Party maintains that Ho had no romantic relationship with anyone
in his lifetime in order to portray a puritanical image of Ho to the
Vietnamese public, and advance the image of Ho as "the father of the
[communist] revolution"[89] and of a "celibate married only to the
cause of revolution".[90] William Duiker's Ho Chi Minh: A Life (2000)
presents much information on Ho's relationships.[7]:605, fn 58 The
government requested substantial cuts in the official Vietnamese
translation of Duiker's book, which was refused.[91] In 2002, the
Vietnamese government suppressed a review of Duiker's book in the Far
Eastern Economic Review.[91]
International influence[edit]
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh bust in Kolkata, India
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh is considered one of the most influential leaders in the
world.
TIME

TIME magazine listed him in the list of 100 Most Important
People of the Twentieth Century (Time 100) in 1998[92][93]. His
thought and revolution inspired many leaders and people in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America during the decolonization movement on a
global scale after World War II. As a communist, he was one of the
international figures which were highly praised in the Communist
world[94].
Various places, boulevards and squares named after him around the
world, especially in socialist states and former communist states. In
Russia, there is a
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh square and monument in Moscow, Ho Chi
Minh boulevard in
Saint Peterburg

Saint Peterburg and
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh square in Ulyanovsk
(the birthplace of Lenin, a sister city of Vinh, birthplace of Ho Chi
Minh). According to the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as
many as 20 countries across Asia, Europe, America and Africa have
erected statues in remembrance of President Ho Chi Minh[95].
Busts, statues and memorial plaques and exhibitions are displayed in
destinations on his extensive world journey in exile from 1911 to 1941
including France, Great Britain, Russia, China and Thailand [96].
Many activists and musicians wrote songs about
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh and his
revolutionism during
Vietnam

Vietnam War in different languages to demonstrate
against the US. Spanish songs are composed by Félix Pita Rodríguez,
Carlos Puebla

Carlos Puebla and Alí Primera. In addition,
Chile

Chile a folk singer
Víctor Jara

Víctor Jara referenced
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh in his anti-war song "El
derecho de vivir en paz" ("The Right to Live in Peace"). In English,
Ewan MacColl wrote "The Ballad of Ho Chi Minh" and
Pete Seeger

Pete Seeger got
"Teacher Uncle Ho". There are also songs about him in Russian by
Vladimir Fere and in German by Kurt Demmler.
In 1987,
UNESCO
.png/800px-Map_of_UNESCO_Intangible_cultural_heritage_(en).png)
UNESCO officially recommended to member states that they
"join in the commemoration of the centenary of the birth of President
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh by organizing various events as a tribute to his memory",
considering "the important and many-sided contribution of President Ho
Chi Minh in the fields of culture, education and the arts" who
"devoted his whole life to the national liberation of the Vietnamese
people, contributing to the common struggle of peoples for peace,
national independence, democracy and social progress."[97]
Notes[edit]
^ He sometimes went on-air to deliver important political messages and
encourage soldiers.[80]
References[edit]
^ a b c d e f g h i j Brocheux, Pierre (12 March 2007). Ho Chi Minh: A
Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 39.
ISBN 978-0-521-85062-9.
^ "Ho Chi Minh". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
^ a b Trần Quốc Vượng. "Lời truyền miệng dân gian về
Hồ Chí Minh". BBC Vietnamese. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
^ a b c Vũ Ngự Chiêu. "Vài vấn nạn lịch sử thế kỷ XX:
Hồ Chí Minh—Nhà ngoại giao, 1945–1946". Hợp Lưu Magazine.
Note: See the document in French, from Centre des archives d'Outre-mer
[CAOM] (Aix)/Gouvernement General de l'Indochine [GGI]/Fonds Residence
Superieure d'Annam [RSA]/carton R1, and the note in English at the end
of the cited article. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
^ a b Nguyễn Vĩnh Châu. "Phỏng vấn sử gia Vũ Ngự Chiêu
về những nghiên cứu lịch sử liên quan đến Hồ Chí
Minh". Hợp Lưu Magazine. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
^ Duncanson, Dennis J. "
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh in Hong Kong 1931-1932". 57
(Jan-Mar 1957). The China Quarterly: 85.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Duiker, William J. Ho Chi Minh: A Life.
New York: Hyperion, 2000.
^ Pike, Douglas (3 August 1976). "Ho Chi Minh: A Post-War
Re-evaluation". Mexico City: 30th Annual Congress of Orientalists.
Retrieved 21 December 2017.
^ Tran Dan Tien, Nhung mau chuyen ve doi hoat dong cua Ho Chu Tich
(Hanoi:Nha Xuat Ban Van Hoc 1972) (1948).
^ Yen Son. “Nguyen Ai Quoc, the Brilliant Champion of the
Revolution.” Thuong Tin Hanoi. 30 Aug. 1945.
^ In his application to the French Colonial School – “Nguyen Tat
Thanh, born 1892 at Vinh, son of Mr. Nguyen Sinh Huy (subdoctor in
literature)”
^ He told
Paris

Paris Police (Surete) he was born January 15, 1894.
^ Ton That Thien 18, 1890 is the most likely year of his birth. There
is troubling conflicting evidence, however. When he was arrested in
Hong Kong in 1931, he attested in court documents that he was 36. The
passport he used to enter Russia in 1921 also gave the year 1895 as
his birth date. His application to the Colonial School in
Paris

Paris gave
his birth year as 1892
^ a b Hunt, Michael H. (2016). The World Transformed 1945 To the
Present. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 125.
ISBN 978-0-19-937102-0.
^ a b c d e f "Quinn-Judge", "Sophie" (2002). Hồ Chí Minh: The
Missing Years. University of California Press.
^ Winter, Marcus (1989). Uncle Ho: Father Of A Nation. Limehouse
Press, London.
^ "
The Drayton Court

The Drayton Court Hotel". Ealing.gov.uk. Retrieved 30 January
2013.
^ Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2012).
Vietnam

Vietnam Past and Present: The
North. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Cognoscenti Books.
^ Harries, David. "Maritime Sussex". Sussex Express. Retrieved 12 June
2015.
^ Phong, Huy; Anh, Yen (1989). "Unmasking Ho Chi Minh". "Viet Quoc".
Archived from the original on 10 May 2015. Retrieved 11 June
2015.
^ For a thumbnail of a photograph in the Library of Congress
collection showing Quốc at the Versailles Conference, see "Ho Chi
Minh, 1890–1969, half-length, standing, facing left; as a member of
French Socialist Party at Versailles Peace Conference, 1919", Library
of Congress Prints and Photographs Online Catalog.
^ Huynh, Kim Kháhn, Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 1982; pg. 60.
^ Tran Dan, Tien. "Ho Chi Minh, Life and Work".
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Party of
Vietnam

Vietnam Online Newspaper. Gioi Publishers. Archived from the original
on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
^ Brett Reilly review of "Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the
Making of America's Vietnam" by Fredrik Logevall, Journal of
Vietnamese Studies 11.1 (2016), 147.r
^ a b c Ton That Thien (1990).
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh and the
Comintern

Comintern (PDF).
Singapore: Information and Resource Center. ISBN 978-9810021399.
Retrieved 20 December 2017.
^ Obituary in The New York Times, 4 September 1969
^ a b Davidson, Phillip B.,
Vietnam

Vietnam at War: The History: 1946–1975
(1991), p. 4.
Hoàng Văn Chí. From Colonialism to
Communism

Communism (1964), p. 18.
^ "Ho Chi Minh". u-s-history.com.
^ Hong Ha (2010). Bác Hồ Trên Đất Nước Lê-Nin. Nhà Xuất
Bản Thanh Niên.
^ "
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh Was Noted for Success in Blending Nationalism and
Communism", The New York Times
^ Interview with Archimedes L. A. Patti, 1981,
http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-bf3262-interview-with-archimedes-l-a-patti-1981
^ Interview with OSS officer Carleton Swift, 1981,
http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-9dc948-interview-with-carleton-swift
^ Zinn, Howard (1995). A People's History of the United States:
1492–present. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 460.
ISBN 0-06-092643-0.
^ "Collection of Letters by Ho Chi Minh". Rationalrevolution.net.
Retrieved 26 September 2009.
^ Zinn, Howard (1995). A People's History of the United States. New
York: Harper Perennial. p. 461. ISBN 0-06-092643-0.
^ The Black Book of Communism
^ Joseph Buttinnger, Vietnam: A Dragon Embattled, vol 1 (New York:
Praeger, 1967)
^ Ngo, Van (2 November 2010). In The Crossfire: Adventures of a
Vietnamese Revolutionary. Oakland, CA: AK Press. p. 163.
ISBN 978-1849350136.
^ Lind, Michael (18 October 1999). Vietnam: The Necessary War. New
York: Free Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0684842547.
^ a b c "Ben-gurion Reveals Suggestion of North Vietnam's Communist
Leader". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 8 November 1966. Retrieved 5
September 2015.
^ a b c "ISRAEL WAS EVERYTHING". Nytimes.com. 21 June 1987. Retrieved
5 September 2015.
^ Currey, Cecil B. Victory At Any Cost (Washington: Brassey's, 1997),
p. 126
^ Tucker, Spencer. Encyclopedia of the
Vietnam

Vietnam War: a political,
social, and military history (vol. 2), 1998
^ Colvin, John. Giap: the Volcano under the Snow (New York: Soho
Press, 1996), p. 51
^ Vietnamese profile of Nguyễn Hải Thần
^ vi:Chính phủ Liên hiệp Kháng chiến Việt Nam
^ "
Vietnam

Vietnam Declaration of Independence". Coombs.anu.edu.au. 2
September 1945. Archived from the original on 6 October 2009.
Retrieved 26 September 2009.
^ Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam: a History.
^ https://leminhkhai.wordpress.com/2012/09/01/ho-chi-minh-said-what/
proof that he runs the blog
^ "
Chiang Kai-shek
.jpg)
Chiang Kai-shek and
Vietnam

Vietnam in 1945". 25 April 2013.
^ Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its Origins and
Development. Hoover Institution Press. pp. 57–9, 67–9,
74. and "Myths of the
Vietnam

Vietnam War". Southeast Asian
Perspectives. September 1972. pp. 14–8. ; also Dommen,
Arthur J. (2001). The Indochinese Experience of the French and the
Americans. Indiana University Press. pp. 153–4.
^ vi:Lời kêu gọi toàn quốc kháng chiến
^ "Lone Sentry: New Weapons for Jap Tank Hunters (U.S. WWII
Intelligence Bulletin, March 1945)". www.lonesentry.com. Retrieved
2016-05-27.
^ Fall, Bernard. Last reflections on a War, p. 88. New York: Doubleday
(1967).
^ vi:Chiến dịch Biên giới
^ Luo, Guibo. pp. 233–36
^ Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Chronology", p. 45.
^ McMaster, H.R. (1997) "Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert
McNamara, The Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies that Led to
Vietnam", pg. 35.
^ Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience of the French
and the Americans, Indiana University Press, pg. 252.
^ Maclear, pp. 65–68.
^ Jacobs, pp. 43–53.
^ a b c d e f g h Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: Its
Origin and Development. Hoover Institution Press. :75
^ a b c Logevall, Fredrik (2012). Embers of War: The fall of an Empire
and the making of America's Vietnam. random House.
ISBN 978-0-679-64519-1.
^ cf. Gittinger, J. Price, "
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Land Policy in Viet Nam", Far
Eastern Survey, Vol. 29, No. 8, 1957, p. 118.
^ Courtois, Stephane (1997). The Black Book of Communism. Harvard
University Press. p. 569. ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2.
^ Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience of the French
and the Americans, Indiana University Press, p. 340, gives a lower
estimate of 32,000 executions.
^ vu tuong (25 May 2007). "Newly released documents on the land
reform" (Mailing list).
Vietnam

Vietnam Studies Group. Retrieved 30 November
2017. Vu Tuong: There is no reason to expect, and no evidence that I
have seen to demonstrate, that the actual executions were less than
planned; in fact the executions perhaps exceeded the plan if we
consider two following factors. First, this decree was issued in 1953
for the rent and interest reduction campaign that preceded the far
more radical land redistribution and party rectification campaigns (or
waves) that followed during 1954–1956. Second, the decree was meant
to apply to free areas (under the control of the Viet Minh
government), not to the areas under French control that would be
liberated in 1954–1955 and that would experience a far more violent
struggle. Thus the number of 13,500 executed people seems to be a
low-end estimate of the real number. This is corroborated by Edwin
Moise in his recent paper "Land Reform in North Vietnam, 1953–1956"
presented at the 18th Annual Conference on SE Asian Studies, Center
for SE Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley (February
2001). In this paper, Moise (7–9) modified his earlier estimate in
his 1983 book (which was 5,000) and accepted an estimate close to
15,000 executions. Moise made the case based on Hungarian reports
provided by Balazs, but the document I cited above offers more direct
evidence for his revised estimate. This document also suggests that
the total number should be adjusted up some more, taking into
consideration the later radical phase of the campaign, the
unauthorized killings at the local level, and the suicides following
arrest and torture (the central government bore less direct
responsibility for these cases, however).
^ Szalontai, Balazs (November 2005). "Political and Economic Crisis in
North Vietnam, 1955–56" (PDF).
Cold War

Cold War History. 5 (4): 395–426.
Retrieved 30 November 2017.
^ Vu, Tuong (2010). Paths to Development in Asia: South Korea,
Vietnam, China, and Indonesia. Cambridge University Press.
p. 103. ISBN 9781139489010. Clearly Vietnamese socialism
followed a moderate path relative to China. ... Yet the
Vietnamese 'land reform' campaign ... testified that Vietnamese
communists could be as radical and murderous as their comrades
elsewhere.
^ a b c Ang, Cheng Guan (2002). The
Vietnam

Vietnam War from the Other Side.
RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 55–58, 76. ISBN 0-7007-1615-7.
^ a b "The History Place —
Vietnam

Vietnam War 1945–1960". Retrieved
21 December 2017.
^ The Economist, 26 February 1983.
^ Lind, 1999
^ Cheng Guan Ang & Ann Cheng Guan, The
Vietnam

Vietnam War from the Other
Side, p. 21. (2002)
^ Davidson,
Vietnam

Vietnam at War: the history, 1946–1975, 1988
^ Chen Jian. "China's Involvement in the
Vietnam

Vietnam Conflict, 1964–69",
China Quarterly, No. 142 (June 1995), pp. 366–69.
^ "
Vietnam

Vietnam Veterans Against the War: History of the U.S. War in
Vietnam". vvaw.org.
^ Translated version:
French – Người tình nguyện vào ngục Bastille dịch "Nhật
ký trong tù"
Czech – by cs:Ivo Vasiljev.
Korean – "Prison Diary" published in Korean Archived 16 October 2015
at the Wayback Machine. by Ahn Kyong Hwan.
English – by Steve Bradbury, Tinfish Press
Older version – by Aileen Palmer
Spanish – [1] by Félix Pita Rodríguez
Romanian – by ro:Constantin Lupeanu
Russian – by Pavel Antokolsky
^ [iMarx] Full translated – English subtitle-Interview President Ho
Chi Minh – 1964. YouTube. 19 December 2011.
^ Marr, David, Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution (1945–1946),
2013, University of California Press [2]
^ a b Phỏng vấn
Vũ Kỳ – Thư ký của chủ tịch Hồ Chí
Minh. YouTube. 10 August 2011.
^ "
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh dies of heart attack". The Globe and Mail. September 4,
1969. p. 1.
^ Vietnamese article on Huy Thuc
^ The Sun News-Pictorial, 1 May, 1975, p. 1
^ "Nghị quyết của Quốc hội nước Cộng hòa xã hội
chủ nghĩa Việt Nam về việc chính thức đặt tên thành
phố Sài Gòn – Gia Định là thành phố Hồ Chí Minh".
wikisource.org.
^ a b Marsh, Viv (6 June 2012). "Uncle Ho's legacy lives on in
Vietnam". BBC News. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
^ "Đền Thờ Bác Hồ". SkyDoor.
^ Trawicky, Bernard (30 April 2009). Anniversaries and Holidays.
American Library Association. p. 84. ISBN 9780838910047.
Retrieved 18 May 2017.
^ Dinh, Thuy. "The Writer's Life Stephen B. Young and Hoa Pham Young:
Painting in Lacquer". The Zenith by Duong Thu Huong. Da Mau magazine.
Retrieved 25 December 2013.
^ Baker, Mark (15 August 2002). "Uncle Ho: a legend on the battlefield
and in the boudoir". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 25 December
2013.
^ a b "Great 'Uncle Ho' may have been a mere mortal". The Age. 15
August 2002. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
^ "
TIME

TIME Magazine -- U.S. Edition -- April 13, 1998 Vol. 151 No.
14".
^ Stanley Karnow, 13 April 1998, Ho Chi Minh, TIME
^ Interview with
William Duiker on Hồ Chí Minh: A Life, 12 November
2000
^ "Remembering Vietnam's late President
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh in foreign
countries - Tuoi Tre News".
^ The places where President
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh lived and worked in Thailand,
Vietnam

Vietnam Breaking News, 19 May 2017
^ "UNESCO. General Conference; 24th; Records of the General
Conference, 24th session, Paris, 20 October to 20 November 1987, v. 1:
Resolutions; 1988" (PDF). Retrieved 26 September 2009.
Further reading[edit]
Essays
Bernard B. Fall, ed., 1967.
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh on Revolution and War,
Selected Writings 1920–1966. New American Library.
Biography
Morris, Virginia and Hills, Clive. 2018. Ho Chi Minh's Blueprint for
Revolution: In the Words of Vietnamese Strategists and Operatives,
McFarland & Co Inc.
William J. Duiker. 2000. Ho Chi Minh: A Life. Theia.
Jean Lacouture. 1968. Ho Chi Minh: A Political Biography. Random
House.
Khắc Huyên. 1971. Vision Accomplished? The Enigma of Ho Chi Minh.
The Macmillan Company.
David Halberstam. 1971. Ho. Rowman & Littlefield.
Hồ chí Minh toàn tập. NXB chính trị quốc gia
Sophie Quinn-Judge. 2003. Ho Chi Minh: The missing years. C. Hurst
& Co. ISBN 1-85065-658-4
Tôn Thất Thiện, Was
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh a Nationalist?
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh and
the
Comintern

Comintern Information and Resource Centre, Singapore, 1990
Việt Minh, NLF and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
William J. Duiker. 1981. The
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Road to Power in Vietnam.
Westview Press.
Hoang Van Chi. 1964. From colonialism to communism. Praeger.
Trương Như Tảng. 1986. A
Viet Cong

Viet Cong Memoir. Vintage.
War in Vietnam
Frances FitzGerald. 1972. Fire in the Lake: The Vietnamese and the
Americans in Vietnam. Little, Brown and Company.
American foreign policy
Henry A. Kissinger. 1979. White House Years. Little, Brown.
Richard Nixon. 1987. No More Vietnams. Arbor House Pub Co.
External links[edit]
Wikisource

Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Ho Chi Minh
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ho Chi Minh
Wikimedia Commons

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh (category)
Works by or about
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh at Internet Archive
The Drayton Court

The Drayton Court Hotel
Hồ Chí Minh

Hồ Chí Minh obituary, The New York Times, 4 September 1969
TIME

TIME 100: Hồ Chí Minh
Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh selected writings
Hồ Chí Minh's biography
Satellite photo of the mausoleum on Google Maps
Final Tribute to Hồ from the Central Committee of the Vietnam
Workers' Party[permanent dead link]
Bibliography: Writings by and about Hồ Chí Minh
Political offices
Preceded by
Bảo Đại
as Emperor
President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
2 September 1945 – 2 September 1969
Succeeded by
Tôn Đức Thắng
Preceded by
Trần Trọng Kim
as Prime Minister of the Empire of Vietnam
Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
2 September 1945 – 20 September 1955
Succeeded by
Phạm Văn Đồng
Party political offices
Preceded by
New title
Chairman of the Workers' Party of Vietnam
1951–1969
Succeeded by
None
Preceded by
Trường Chinh
First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam
1956–1960
Succeeded by
Lê Duẩn
v
t
e
Vietnamese independence movement
Events
Bombardment of Tourane
Siege of Saigon
Capture of the Citadel of Saigon
Conquest of Cochinchina
Ba Dinh uprising / Cần Vương
Pacification of Tonkin
Hanoi

Hanoi Poison Plot
World War I
1916 Cochinchina uprising
Thái Nguyên uprising
Bazin assassination
Yên Bái mutiny
Nghệ-Tĩnh Soviets
World War II
1940 Cochinchina uprising
Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina
August Revolution
Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
First Indochina War
Battle of Dien Bien Phu
Geneva Conference
Organisations
Cần Vương
Đông Du
Duy Tân

Duy Tân hội
Empire of Vietnam
Nguyễn dynasty
Tonkin Free School
Việt Nam Quang Phục Hội
Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League
Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng
Viet Minh
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Party of Vietnam
Revolutionaries
Cường Để
Đinh Công Tráng
Ho Chi Minh
Huỳnh Thúc Kháng
Lương Văn Can
Ngô Đức Kế
Nguyễn An Ninh
Nguyễn Quang Bích
Nguyễn Quyền
Nguyễn Thái Học
Nguyễn Thần Hiến
Nguyễn Thành
Nguyễn Thiện Thuật
Nguyễn Thượng Hiền
Nguyễn Trung Trực
Nguyen Xuan On
Phạm Bành
Phan Bội Châu
Phan Chu Trinh
Phan Đình Phùng
Phan Thanh Giản
Phan Xích Long
Tạ Thu Thâu
Tôn Thất Thuyết
Trần Cao Vân
Trương Định
Vũ Hồng Khanh
Emperors
Tự Đức
Hàm Nghi
Thành Thái
Duy Tân
Bảo Đại
French rulers
Albert Sarraut
Jean Decoux
French Indochina
Governor-General
Collaborators
Hoàng Cao Khải
Trần Bá Lộc
v
t
e
Heads of state of
Vietnam

Vietnam since 1945
Democratic Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam (1945–76)
Hồ Chí Minh
Huỳnh Thúc Kháng1
Tôn Đức Thắng
State of
Vietnam

Vietnam (1949–55)
Bảo Đại
Ngô Đình Diệm1
Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam (1955–75)
Ngô Đình Diệm
Dương Văn Minh2
Nguyễn Khánh2
Provisional Leadership Committee3
Dương Văn Minh2
Phan Khắc Sửu2
Nguyễn Văn Thiệu2
Trần Văn Hương
Dương Văn Minh
Republic of South
Vietnam

Vietnam (1969–76)
Nguyễn Hữu Thọ
Socialist Republic of
Vietnam

Vietnam (1976–present)
Tôn Đức Thắng

Tôn Đức Thắng (1976–1980)
Nguyễn Hữu Thọ

Nguyễn Hữu Thọ (1980–1981)1
Council of State (1981–1987) (Chairman: Trường Chinh)3
Council of State (1987–1992) (Chairman: Võ Chí Công)3
Lê Đức Anh

Lê Đức Anh (1992–1997)
Trần Đức Lương

Trần Đức Lương (1997–2006)
Nguyễn Minh Triết

Nguyễn Minh Triết (2006–2011)
Trương Tấn Sang(2011–2016)
Trần Đại Quang

Trần Đại Quang (2016–present)
1acting
2military
3collective leadership
v
t
e
Prime Ministers of Vietnam
Empire of Vietnam
(1945)
Trần Trọng Kim
Republic of Cochinchina
(1946–49)
Nguyễn Văn Thinh
Lê Văn Hoạch
Nguyễn Văn Xuân
Trần Văn Hữu
Provisional Central Government of Vietnam
(1948–49)
Nguyễn Văn Xuân
State of Vietnam
(1949–55)
Bảo Đại
Nguyễn Phan Long
Trần Văn Hữu
Nguyễn Văn Tâm
Bửu Lộc
Phan Huy Quát
Ngô Đình Diệm
Republic of Vietnam
(1955–75)
Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ2
Nguyễn Khánh2
Nguyễn Xuân Oánh1, 2
Nguyễn Khánh2
Trần Văn Hương2
Nguyễn Xuân Oánh1, 2
Phan Huy Quát2
Nguyễn Cao Kỳ2
Nguyễn Văn Lộc
Trần Văn Hương
Trần Thiện Khiêm
Nguyễn Bá Cẩn
Vũ Văn Mẫu
Democratic Republic of Vietnam
(1945–76)
Ho Chi Minh
Phạm Văn Đồng
Republic of South Vietnam
(1975–76)
Huỳnh Tấn Phát
Socialist Republic of Vietnam
(1976–)
Phạm Văn Đồng
Phạm Hùng
Võ Văn Kiệt1
Đỗ Mười
Võ Văn Kiệt
Phan Văn Khải
Nguyễn Tấn Dũng
Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
1acting
2head of a military government
v
t
e
Heads of the Central Committee of the
Communist
.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
Communist Party of Vietnam
Chairman (1951–69)
Hồ Chí Minh
General Secretaries (1930-present)
Trịnh Đình Cửu1
Trần Phú
Lê Hồng Phong
Hà Huy Tập
Nguyễn Văn Cừ
Trường Chinh
Hồ Chí Minh1
Lê Duẩn
Trường Chinh
Nguyễn Văn Linh
Đỗ Mười
Lê Khả Phiêu
Nông Đức Mạnh
Nguyễn Phú Trọng
1provisional
v
t
e
Cold War
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SEATO
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Cold War

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Morgenthau Plan
Hukbalahap Rebellion
Dekemvriana
Percentages Agreement
Yalta Conference
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Forest Brothers
Operation Priboi
Operation Jungle
Occupation of the Baltic states
Cursed soldiers
Operation Unthinkable
Operation Downfall
Potsdam Conference
Gouzenko Affair
Division of Korea
Operation Masterdom
Operation Beleaguer
Operation Blacklist Forty
Iran crisis of 1946
Greek Civil War
Baruch Plan
Corfu Channel incident
Turkish Straits crisis
Restatement of Policy on Germany
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Truman Doctrine
Asian Relations Conference
May 1947 Crises
Marshall Plan
Comecon
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Berlin Blockade
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Papua conflict
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Dirty War
_11.JPG/440px-Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_(2015)_11.JPG)
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Bricker Amendment
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Partition of Vietnam
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Vietnam War
First Taiwan Strait Crisis
Geneva Summit (1955)
Bandung Conference
Poznań 1956 protests
Hungarian Revolution of 1956
Suez Crisis
"We will bury you"
Operation Gladio
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Sputnik crisis
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Kitchen Debate
Sino-Soviet split
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1960 U-2 incident
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Communist
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Sand War
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1963 Syrian coup d'état
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Domino theory
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Prague Spring
1968 Polish political crisis
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.jpg/540px-Editorial_cartoon_(by_Fred_Ellis,_for_the_Daily_Worker,_March_6_1930).jpg)
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1970s
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Koza riot
Realpolitik
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Ugandan-Tanzanian War
1971 Turkish military memorandum
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Four Power Agreement on Berlin
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1972 Nixon visit to China
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NDF Rebellion
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Spanish transition
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Rhodesian Bush War
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Oromo conflict
Ogaden War
Ethiopian Civil War
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Sino-Albanian split
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Operation Condor
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1976 Argentine coup d'état
Korean Air Lines Flight 902
Yemenite War of 1979
Grand Mosque seizure
Iranian Revolution
Saur Revolution
New Jewel Movement
1979 Herat uprising
Seven Days to the River Rhine
Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
1980s
Soviet–Afghan War
1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts
1980 Turkish coup d'état
Peruvian conflict
Casamance conflict
Ugandan Bush War
Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
Eritrean Civil Wars
1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War
Ndogboyosoi War
United States

United States invasion of Grenada
Able Archer 83
Star Wars
Iran–Iraq War
Somali Rebellion
1986 Black Sea incident
1988 Black Sea bumping incident
South Yemen Civil War
Bougainville Civil War
8888 Uprising
Solidarity
Soviet reaction
Contras
Central American crisis
RYAN
Korean Air Lines Flight 007
People Power Revolution
Glasnost
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Afghan Civil War
United States

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1988 Polish strikes
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Romanian Revolution
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Die Wende
1990s
Mongolian Revolution of 1990
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Breakup of Yugoslavia
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Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
Frozen conflicts
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China-Taiwan
Korea
Nagorno-Karabakh
South Ossetia
Transnistria
Sino-Indian border dispute
North Borneo dispute
Foreign policy
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Domino theory
Hallstein Doctrine
Kennedy Doctrine
Peaceful coexistence
Ostpolitik
Johnson Doctrine
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