History of military nutrition
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Military nutrition has evolved over time. In the past, armies that ventured beyond their supply lines lived off the land, by pillaging food from the people whose land the army occupied, or requisitioning it. Often more soldiers died of disease that was exacerbated by malnutrition than from combat. The standard for military rations in the United States was set in 1775 during the Revolutionary War and included one pound of beef, three quarters of a pound of pork, or one pound of salt fish; one pound of bread or flour; three pints of peas or beans; one pint of milk; one half-pint of rice or one pint of cornmeal; and one quart of spruce beer or cider. When these items were not available, soldiers relied on
jerky Jerky is lean trimmed meat cut into strips and dried (dehydrated) to prevent spoilage. Normally, this drying includes the addition of salt to prevent bacteria growth before the meat has finished the dehydrating process. The word "jerky" derive ...
and
hardtack Hardtack (or hard tack) is a simple type of dense biscuit or Cracker (food), cracker made from flour, water, and sometimes salt. Hardtack is inexpensive and long-lasting. It is used for sustenance in the absence of perishable foods, commonly dur ...
, a type of biscuit made from flour and water. During the
Civil War A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
, due to the progress made in the preservation of food, Union rations came to include coffee, tea, potatoes, and seasonings. During
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, rations included a pound of hard bread and canned meat, a cube of
condensed soup Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, milk, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ...
, coffee, and sugar. During World War I, four types of rations existed: garrison rations, reserve rations, emergency rations, and trench rations. Garrison rations were perishable foods like meat and bread. Reserve rations were non-perishables, such as canned goods. In response to the need for food for the
Grand Army Grand may refer to: People with the name * Grand (surname) * Grand L. Bush (born 1955), American actor * Grand Mixer DXT, American turntablist * Grand Puba (born 1966), American rapper Places * Grand, Oklahoma * Grand, Vosges, village and commu ...
that invaded Russia under Napoleon, a French government reward prompted
Nicolas Appert Nicolas Appert (17 November 1749 – 1 June 1841) was the French inventor of airtight food preservation. Appert, known as the " father of Food Science", was a confectioner. Appert described his invention as a way "of conserving all kinds of food ...
to invent "
canning Canning is a method of food preservation in which food is processed and sealed in an airtight container (jars like Mason jars, and steel and tin cans). Canning provides a shelf life that typically ranges from one to five years, although u ...
", resulting in the first preserved food for armies (military rations), that came as food stuffed into wine bottles and then boiled to preserve it. /sup> Emergency rations were compressed meats and
cereal bars A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food en ...
. Trench rations were kept in large steel cans designed to withstand chemical attacks. During the mid-1930s, the names for these rations were changed: garrison rations became A rations; reserve rations became B and C rations; emergency rations became D rations. C rations contained three cans of meat (M) units and Bread (B) units. M1 contained meat and beans, M2 contained meat and vegetable hash, and M3 contained meat and vegetable stew. B units contained bread, coffee, and sugar. K rations were developed in the 1940s. These were portable rations, sealed for safe consumption, designed to give soldiers the energy they need without the baggage of the bulkier rations. The Logan bar D ration, was made from chocolate and oat flour and was made by
Hershey Chocolate Company The Hershey Company, commonly known as Hershey's, is an American multinational company and one of the largest chocolate manufacturers in the world. It also manufactures baked products, such as cookies and cakes, and sells beverages like milksh ...
. Starting in the 1980s these rations evolved to include two hot meals a day. T, or tray rations were developed for dining halls and were meant to be boiled and served to twelve to eighteen people. Individual rations were also developed called MRE or Meals Ready-To-Eat. These were complete 1300 calorie meals that include things like cake, peanut butter, hot sauce, and candy. These MREs came with a water activated heating pad to prepare the meals if desired. Since the 1980s, the variety of these meals has increased to include more of a variation of meals.


United States military

Currently, the United States military several different types of food available. Some of these include: * A-Ration, a fresh refrigerator food that is normally prepared in dining halls or field kitchens. Examples of A-Ration include various kinds of meat and produce found locally. * B-Ration, less perishable foods such as canned, prepackaged, or preserved foods. * MRE, or Meals Ready to Eat, which were first studied by the military in 1975, large-scale tested in 1978, and entered service in 1981. The 25th Infantry did a field study of the MRE in 1983, eating MRE three times a day for 34 days; troops reported that the rations were acceptable, but test results showed only 60% of the calories were consumed. In 1988 changes were made to the MRE based on the 1983 results, replacing nine of the twelve entree options and increasing entree size from 5 to 8 oz. * First Strike Ration, a fast action meal which troops can eat while on the move; it is designed to be consumed during the first 72 hours of conflict. One example is the
HOOAH! Bar The Soldier Fuel bar, formerly known as Hooah! bar, is a dairy-based calcium-enriched energy bar created by the United States military in 1996. It was originally provided to military personnel packaged within a field ration, such as the Meal, Read ...
, a dairy based energy bar enriched with calcium.


Effects on health

Nutrition contributes directly to human health, and health directly contributes to the effectiveness of military personnel. Lack of proper nutrition can decrease the effectiveness of vaccines and increase the possibility of disease, especially in high stress situations. Many nutrients have direct effects on the immune system. When the body is subjected to illnesses such as injuries or burns increased amounts of the amino acid
Glutamine Glutamine (symbol Gln or Q) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Its side chain is similar to that of glutamic acid, except the carboxylic acid group is replaced by an amide. It is classified as a charge-neutral, ...
are required. Vitamins C and E are
antioxidant Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation, a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals. This can lead to polymerization and other chain reactions. They are frequently added to industrial products, such as fuels and lubricant ...
s and have been associated with increased immune response. Nutrition plays an important role in the body's ability to repair itself. Throughout history there have been instances where disease caused by nutritional depletion caused more deaths than combat. During
Lord Anson Admiral of the Fleet George Anson, 1st Baron Anson, (23 April 1697 – 6 June 1762) was a Royal Navy officer. Anson served as a junior officer during the War of the Spanish Succession and then saw active service against Spain at the Batt ...
’s 1774 voyage around the world 636 of his 961 soldiers died while on his ships. The surgeon
James Lind James Lind (4 October 1716 – 13 July 1794) was a Scottish doctor. He was a pioneer of naval hygiene in the Royal Navy. By conducting one of the first ever clinical trials, he developed the theory that citrus fruits cured scurvy. Lind arg ...
of the Royal Navy discovered that consuming citrus fruits prevented scurvy. Historical accounts and nutrient analysis provide evidence that poor nutrition and inadequate amounts of vitamins A, C, and E may have caused the failure of the New Zealand army during the Battle of Gallipoli. These deficiencies account for numerous cases of scurvy and illnesses and could have been easily avoided by incorporating canned fruits and vegetables into soldier’s diets. “ Inadequate nutrition can result in poor physical and cognitive performance (e.g. inability to carry out physical tasks, poor concentration and decreased vigilance) 1,22 The long-term effects of both macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances include increased risk of vitamin and mineral deficiencies (potentially predisposing some individuals to an increased risk of stress fractures and
rickets Rickets is a condition that results in weak or soft bones in children, and is caused by either dietary deficiency or genetic causes. Symptoms include bowed legs, stunted growth, bone pain, large forehead, and trouble sleeping. Complications may ...
),
obesity Obesity is a medical condition, sometimes considered a disease, in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it may negatively affect health. People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's we ...
,
hypertension Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms. Long-term high bl ...
,
coronary heart disease Coronary artery disease (CAD), also called coronary heart disease (CHD), ischemic heart disease (IHD), myocardial ischemia, or simply heart disease, involves the reduction of blood flow to the heart muscle due to build-up of atherosclerotic pla ...
,
diabetes Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ap ...
,
osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder characterized by low bone mass, micro-architectural deterioration of bone tissue leading to bone fragility, and consequent increase in fracture risk. It is the most common reason for a broken bone ...
and
kidney failure Kidney failure, also known as end-stage kidney disease, is a medical condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately filter waste products from the blood, functioning at less than 15% of normal levels. Kidney failure is classified as eit ...
”.


Nutritional evaluation of Meals Ready to Eat (MRE)

In 1963, the
Department of Defense Department of Defence or Department of Defense may refer to: Current departments of defence * Department of Defence (Australia) * Department of National Defence (Canada) * Department of Defence (Ireland) * Department of National Defense (Philippin ...
began creating what is now known as “ Meal, Ready to Eat”, commonly abbreviated as MRE. Modern food preparation combined with new packaging technology led to the ability to ration out food in a lighter and more efficient way, rather than having to carry around canned goods. Ongoing development has led to around 24 entrees and more than 150 additional food and beverage options for soldiers to choose from. Recently, MREs have been studied more extensively, and are now being developed using the
Dietary Reference Intake The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is a system of nutrition recommendations from the National Academy of Medicine (NAM) of the National Academies (United States). It was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing guidelines known as Reco ...
. Created by the Institute of Medicine, it was indicated that military members typically burn around 4,200 calories a day, but tend to only consume around 2,400 calories during combat. To combat this and provide foods with better nutritional value, the military has experimented with new ration ideas, such as the
First Strike Ration The First Strike Ration (FSR) is a compact, eat-on-the move ration concept from the United States Army, designed to be consumed during the first 72 hours of conflict, created by the United States Army Soldier Systems Center in Natick, Massachuse ...
and the
HOOAH! Bar The Soldier Fuel bar, formerly known as Hooah! bar, is a dairy-based calcium-enriched energy bar created by the United States military in 1996. It was originally provided to military personnel packaged within a field ration, such as the Meal, Read ...
, which are typically lighter than MRE and require less preparation, such as having to heat up foods. Each MRE meal contains approximately 1,200 calories. They are prepared to be eaten within a twenty-one day period. Packaging requirements are strict in order to maintain health codes. For example, MREs are created to withstand parachute drops from 1,250 feet high. The packaging itself is made to survive a life shelf of three and a half years at 81 degrees Fahrenheit, nine months at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and can even stay safe through short durations of −60 degrees Fahrenheit. Not only are the MRE options ever-developing to best suit the needs of service members, the packaging itself is improving.
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is being studied as a possibility to replace the current foil packages. Foil has a list of negativity; it can be punctured more easily, can conduct heat, and is reflective, which could give away a soldier's position while on the battlefield.


Psychological effects

The subject of how nutrition in the military affects service members psychologically is an ongoing research process. It is currently a small field, as few studies have been conducted. However, much research has been done on how food, or lack thereof, can affect the mental stability of an individual. This information can thus be carried over to our soldiers and intensified, to better their health. A review by the
American Dietetic Association The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics is a 501(c)(6) trade association in the United States. With over 112,000 members, the association claims to be the largest organization of food and nutrition professionals. It has registered dietitian nutr ...
indicated that restricting the intake of food has many underlying issues. Lack of proper nutrition can increase emotional responsiveness and dysphoria, and distractibility. This can be an obvious issue for soldiers, especially those on the front line. Taking this into account and finding ways to better the dietary plans of military members will not only better their physical abilities, but help keep their minds stronger.


Religious diets

Muslim soldiers must observe
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, a four-week fasting period where the participants can only eat after sundown. This can cause problems for military personnel who are in training or in battle, depleting their body of nutrients for long periods of time while they are still required to do continuous physical and mental labor at a high level of ability. However, a
Hellenic Army Academy The Hellenic Army Academy ( el, Στρατιωτική Σχολή Ευελπίδων), commonly known as the Evelpidon, is a military academy. It is the Officer cadet school of the Greek Army and the oldest third-level educational institution in G ...
study found that Ramadan fasting does not affect overall military fitness performance, although fasting cadets were less able to handle repeated maximal exercise, possibly due to inadequate recovery between tests.


Diet quality


United States military

Throughout US military history, diet quality has not been the main issue; the lack of food consumption has. The Committee on Military Nutrition Research attempted to identify factors that lead to low food intake by troops in field settings, investigating whether or not—and if so, when—the energy deficit affects soldiers’ performance, and what specific factors are involved, allowing the military to implement operational strategies to mitigate the problem.


Australian military

A balanced diet informed by sound nutrition knowledge is key for operational readiness and the health of military personnel. Research suggests that military personnel have inadequate dietary intakes. A study assessed general nutrition knowledge, diet quality and their association in Australian military personnel. Two specific questions on eating patterns were also included. The first examined how often during an average week (including weekends) participants skipped breakfast, lunch and/or dinner. Response options included ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘sometimes’ or ‘never’. The second examined on average how many times per week participants ate dinner away from home – for example, from a restaurant, takeaway or frontline (military canteen). Participants were required to provide a numerical value of occasions per week. This study found that military personnel had poor quality diets even with the knowledge they would expect to have from having to take care of their bodies in other to be able to reach their fitness standards.


New Zealand military

A study done testing the poor food quality giving to New Zealand soldiers in
Gallipoli The Gallipoli peninsula (; tr, Gelibolu Yarımadası; grc, Χερσόνησος της Καλλίπολης, ) is located in the southern part of East Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles ...
in 1915. To further understand this problem, the study analysed the foods in the military rations for 1915 using food composition data on the closest equivalents for modern foods. The nutrient analysis suggested that the military rations were below modern requirements for vitamins A, C and E; potassium; selenium; and dietary fiber. If military planners had used modest amounts of the canned vegetables and fruit available in 1915, this would probably have eliminated four of these six deficits. In summary, there is now both historical and analytic evidence that the military rations provided to these soldiers were nutritionally inadequate. These deficits are likely to have caused cases of scurvy and may have contributed to the high rates of other illnesses experienced at Gallipoli. Such problems could have been readily prevented by providing rations that included some canned fruit or vegetables.


Canadian military

Canada determined that poor nutrition of their military personnel may be affecting their long-term health and combat readiness. Due to their findings, the military has designed and required a nutrition course for all new recruits. They have also updated their National Standardized Cycle menu and shelf stable rations to encourage healthier eating habits.


British military

During the First World War, the rations provided to the British Forces were often inedible and did not resemble real food. The soldiers mentioning food in many of their letters home shows some psychological distress that they may have been experiencing due to the nature of their rations. They also were high in calories yet low in the essential nutrients needed to thrive. In the book the author reveals parts of soldiers diaries where they admit to stealing food from French farms and orchards. Edible food was used as a motivating source for the Soldiers when receiving care packages from loved ones.


See also

*
British military rations during the French and Indian War During the French and Indian War, British military rations contained enough food energy to sustain the soldier in garrison but suffered from a lack of vitamins that could lead to nutritional deficiencies if not supplemented by the soldiers thems ...
*
Field ration A field ration (combat ration, ration pack, or food packet) is a type of prepackaged or canned military ration. Field rations are distinguished from garrison rations by virtue of being designed for minimal preparation in the field, as well ...
*
Garrison ration A garrison ration is a type of military ration defined as the quantity and type of food served to a soldier when they are stationed somewhere. It is generally not the same as the rations fed to troops in combat or transit, which are usually terme ...
* Index of military food articles *
Military rations Military rations are food intended to feed military personnel. Types of military rations include garrison rations and field rations. They may be used where fresh meals are not available. Australia * Combat Ration One Man (CR1M) Canada * Indiv ...


References

{{reflist Military food Military nutrtion