Amphetamine Amphetamine (contracted from alpha- methylphenethylamine) is a strong central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity. It is also commonly used ...

and

methamphetamine Methamphetamine (contracted from ) is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is mainly used as a recreational drug and less commonly as a second-line treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and obesity. Methamp ...

are

central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all p ...

stimulant Stimulants (also often referred to as psychostimulants or colloquially as uppers) is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the central nervous system and the body, drugs that are pleasurable and inv ...

s used to treat a variety of conditions. When used recreationally, they are colloquially known as "speed" (amphetamine) and “crank” (methamphetamine). Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist

Lazăr Edeleanu Lazăr Edeleanu (; 1 September 1861, Bucharest – 7 April 1941, Bucharest) was a Romanian chemist of Jewish origin. Around the same time, Japanese organic chemist

Nagai Nagayoshi was a Japanese pharmacist, best known for his study of ephedrine. Early life Nagai was born in Myōdō District, Awa Province in what is now Tokushima Prefecture, as the son of a doctor and started studying ''rangaku'' medicine at the Dutch M ...

isolated

ephedrine Ephedrine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is often used to prevent low blood pressure during anesthesia. It has also been used for asthma, narcolepsy, and obesity but is not the preferred treatment. It is of unclear benefit in ...

from the Chinese ephedra plant and later developed a method for ephedrine synthesis. Methamphetamine was synthesized from ephedrine in 1893 by Nagayoshi. Neither drug had a pharmacological use until 1934, when

Smith, Kline & French Smith, Kline & French (SKF) was an American pharmaceutical company. History In 1830, John K. Smith opened a drugstore in Philadelphia, and his younger brother, George, joined him in 1841 to form John K Smith & Co. In 1865, Mahlon Kline joined '' ...

began selling amphetamine as an

inhaler An inhaler (also known as a puffer, pump or allergy spray) is a medical device used for delivering medicines into the lungs through the work of a person's breathing. This allows medicines to be delivered to and absorbed in the lungs, which prov ...

under the trade name

Benzedrine Amphetamine (contracted from alpha- methylphenethylamine) is a strong central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity. It is also commonly used ...

for congestion. During

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...

, amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by Allied and

Axis forces The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...

for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects. As the addictive properties of the drugs became known, governments began to place strict controls on the sale of the drugs. During the early 1970s in the United States, amphetamine was initially classified as a

schedule III controlled substance The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary legislation or religious law is a common means of attempting to prevent the recreational use of certain intoxicating substances. While some drugs are illegal to possess, many governments regulate t ...

under the

Controlled Substances Act The Controlled Substances Act (CSA) is the statute establishing federal U.S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use, and distribution of certain substances is regulated. It was passed by the 91st United States ...

, but then became a schedule II controlled substance under the Psychotropic Substances Act. Despite strict government controls, amphetamine and methamphetamine have been used (legally or illegally) by individuals from a variety of backgrounds for a variety of purposes. Due to the large underground market for these drugs, they are often illegally synthesized by clandestine chemists,

trafficked ''Trafficked'' is a 2017 American thriller drama film directed by Will Wallace and starring Ashley Judd, Sean Patrick Flanery and Anne Archer. Plot In California, Sara is eighteen and has to leave her foster home; she is offered training to be a ...

, and sold on the

black market A black market, underground economy, or shadow economy is a clandestine market or series of transactions that has some aspect of illegality or is characterized by noncompliance with an institutional set of rules. If the rule defines the ...

. Based on seizures of drugs and

precursor chemicals Drug precursors, also referred to as precursor chemicals or simply precursors, are substances which are known to be used in the illegal manufacture of illicit drugs. Most precursors also have legitimate commercial uses and are legally used in a wide ...

, illicit amphetamine production and trafficking is much less prevalent than that of methamphetamine. __TOC__

History of amphetamine and methamphetamine

Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist,

Lazăr Edeleanu Lazăr Edeleanu (; 1 September 1861, Bucharest – 7 April 1941, Bucharest) was a Romanian chemist of Jewish origin. This concoction was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative

, which had been isolated from the Chinese ephedra plant that same year by

. Shortly after the first synthesis of amphetamine, Nagai synthesized methamphetamine from ephedrine in 1893. In 1919, methamphetamine hydrochloride, also known as ''crystal meth'', was synthesized by pharmacologist

Akira Ogata was a Japanese chemist and the first to synthesize methamphetamine in crystalline form in 1919. Career In 1912, Ogata graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Tokyo. In 1919 he received a degree from the Humboldt University ...

via reduction of ephedrine using

red phosphorus Elemental phosphorus can exist in several allotropes, the most common of which are white and red solids. Solid violet and black allotropes are also known. Gaseous phosphorus exists as diphosphorus and atomic phosphorus. White phosphorus Whit ...

and

iodine Iodine is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the stable halogens, it exists as a semi-lustrous, non-metallic solid at standard conditions that melts to form a deep violet liquid at , ...

. The

sympathomimetic Sympathomimetic drugs (also known as adrenergic drugs and adrenergic amines) are stimulant compounds which mimic the effects of endogenous agonists of the sympathetic nervous system. Examples of sympathomimetic effects include increases in hea ...

properties of amphetamine were unknown until 1927, when pioneer psychopharmacologist Gordon Alles independently resynthesized it and tested it on himself while searching for an artificial replacement for ephedrine. At the time, Alles referred to the amphetamine compound as Benzedrine, a term derived from the name ''benzyl-methyl carbinamine''. In 1934,

made the first amphetamine pharmaceutical when they began selling a

decongestant A decongestant, or nasal decongestant, is a type of pharmaceutical drug that is used to relieve nasal congestion in the upper respiratory tract. The active ingredient in most decongestants is either pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine (the latter ...

inhaler containing the volatile amphetamine free base under the trade name

. One of the first attempts at using amphetamine in a scientific study was done by M. Nathanson, a Los Angeles physician, in 1935. He studied the subjective effects of amphetamine in 55 hospital workers who were each given 20 mg of Benzedrine. The two most commonly reported drug effects were "a sense of well being and a feeling of exhilaration" and "lessened fatigue in reaction to work". During World War II, both the Allied and Axis forces experimented giving amphetamine and methamphetamine to select servicemen for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects. In the 1950s, there was a rise in the legal prescription of methamphetamine to the American public. Methamphetamine constituted half of the amphetamine salts for the original formulation for the diet drug Obetrol. Methamphetamine was also marketed for sinus inflammation or for non-medicinal purposes as " pep pills" or "bennies". A thriving black market in pep pills among long-haul truck drivers in the 1950s and 1960s, linked to long drive times and intense competitive pressures within the industry, contributed to federal efforts by the late 1960s to curtail non-medical use of the substance. Also in the 1950s, the Japanese Ministry of Health banned stimulant production, although drug companies continued to produce stimulants that wound up on the black market. From 1951 to 1954, a series of acts were passed by the Japanese government to try to stop production and sale of stimulants; however, the production and sale of stimulant drugs continued through criminal syndicates such as

Yakuza , also known as , are members of transnational organized crime syndicates originating in Japan. The Japanese police and media, by request of the police, call them , while the ''yakuza'' call themselves . The English equivalent for the ter ...

criminal organizations. On the streets, it is also known as S, Shabu, and Speed, in addition to its old trademarked name. The United States in the 1960s saw the start of significant use of clandestinely manufactured methamphetamine, most of which was produced by

motorcycle gangs An outlaw motorcycle club is a motorcycle subculture generally centered on the use of cruiser motorcycles, particularly Harley-Davidsons and choppers, and a set of ideals that purport to celebrate freedom, nonconformity to mainstream culture, ...

. A notable part of the 1960s mod subculture in the UK was recreational amphetamine use, which was used to fuel all-night dances at clubs like Manchester's

Twisted Wheel The Twisted Wheel was a nightclub in Manchester, England, open from 1963 to 1971. It was one of the first clubs to play the music that became known as Northern Soul. History The nightclub was founded by the brothers Jack, Phillip and Ivor ...

. Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at 5 a.m. with dilated pupils. Mods used the drug for

stimulation Stimulation is the encouragement of development or the cause of activity generally. For example, "The press provides stimulation of political discourse." An interesting or fun activity can be described as "stimulating", regardless of its physic ...

and

alertness Alertness is the state of active attention by high sensory awareness such as being watchful and prompt to meet danger or emergency, or being quick to perceive and act. It is related for psychology . A lack of alertness is a symptom of a ...

, which they viewed as different from the

intoxication Intoxication — or poisoning, especially by an alcoholic or narcotic substance — may refer to: * Substance intoxication: ** Alcohol intoxication ** LSD intoxication ** Toxidrome ** Tobacco intoxication ** Cannabis intoxication ** Cocaine in ...

caused by alcohol and other drugs. Dr. Andrew Wilson argues that for a significant minority, "amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-ball, cool image" and that they sought "stimulation not intoxication ..greater awareness, not escape" and "confidence and articulacy" rather than the "drunken rowdiness of previous generations." Wilson argues that the significance of amphetamines to the mod culture was similar to that of

LSD Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), also known colloquially as acid, is a potent psychedelic drug. Effects typically include intensified thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception. At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental, vi ...

and

cannabis ''Cannabis'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: '' Cannabis sativa'', '' C. indica'', and '' C. ruderalis''. Alternative ...

within the subsequent

hippie A hippie, also spelled hippy, especially in British English, is someone associated with the counterculture of the 1960s, originally a youth movement that began in the United States during the mid-1960s and spread to different countries around ...

counterculture.

Dick Hebdige Dick Hebdige (born 1951) is an expatriate British media theorist and sociologist, and a professor of art and media studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His work is commonly associated with the study of subcultures, and its ...

argues that mods used amphetamines to extend their leisure time into the early hours of the morning and as a way of bridging the gap between their hostile and daunting everyday work lives and the "inner world" of dancing and dressing-up in their off-hours. After decades of reported abuse, in 1965 the

United States Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food s ...

(USFDA) banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamine to prescription use, but non-medical use remained common. Amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance in the U.S. under the

in 1971. That same year, the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoni ...

enacted the

Convention on Psychotropic Substances The Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 is a United Nations treaty designed to control psychoactive drugs such as amphetamine-type stimulants, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and psychedelics signed in Vienna, Austria on 21 February ...

, and amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance, a highly restrictive category under the treaty. By the 1990s, roughly 180 state parties were signatories to the treaty and consequently, it became heavily regulated in most countries. Beginning in the 1990s in the United States, the production of methamphetamine in users' own homes for personal use became popular as well. In 1997 and 1998, researchers at

Texas A&M University Texas A&M University (Texas A&M, A&M, or TAMU) is a public university, public, Land-grant university, land-grant, research university in College Station, Texas. It was founded in 1876 and became the flagship institution of the Texas A&M Unive ...

claimed to have found amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two

Acacia ''Acacia'', commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australasia. The genus nam ...

species native to

Texas Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...

, '' A. berlandieri'' and '' A. rigidula''. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be purely synthetic. These findings have never been duplicated and consequently the validity of the report has come into question. Substituted amphetamine use has historically been especially common among

Major League Baseball Major League Baseball (MLB) is a professional baseball organization and the oldest major professional sports league in the world. MLB is composed of 30 total teams, divided equally between the National League (NL) and the American League (A ...

players and is usually known by the slang term "greenies". In 2006, the MLB banned the use of amphetamine. The ban is enforced through periodic drug-testing. However, the MLB has received some criticism because the punitive consequences for amphetamine use are dramatically less severe than for

anabolic steroid Anabolic steroids, also known more properly as anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), are steroidal androgens that include natural androgens like testosterone as well as synthetic androgens that are structurally related and have similar effects ...

use, with the first offense bringing only a warning and further testing. Methamphetamine was formerly in widespread use by truck drivers to combat symptoms of

somnolence Somnolence (alternatively sleepiness or drowsiness) is a state of strong desire for sleep, or sleeping for unusually long periods (compare hypersomnia). It has distinct meanings and causes. It can refer to the usual state preceding falling asleep ...

and to increase their concentration during driving, especially in the decades prior to the signing by former

president President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university * President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...

Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan ( ; February 6, 1911June 5, 2004) was an American politician, actor, and union leader who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He also served as the 33rd governor of California from 1967 ...

of Executive Order 12564, which initiated mandatory random drug testing of all truck drivers and employees of other DOT-regulated industries. Up to a quarter of college students use

Adderall Adderall and Mydayis are trade names for a combination drug called mixed amphetamine salts containing four salts of amphetamine. The mixture is composed of equal parts racemic amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, which produces a (3:1) ratio ...

to help them focus on their studies instead of its intended purpose of helping people with ADHD. This use sometimes continues after the student graduates college due to its addictive properties. As of 2015, amphetamines, especially Adderall, were increasingly being used by young white-collar workers who work long hours at demanding work. Many felt drug use was necessary to perform adequately.

Military use

One of the earliest uses of amphetamine and methamphetamine was during World War II, when they were used by Axis and Allied forces. As early as 1919, Akira Ogata synthesized methamphetamine via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. Later, the chemists Hauschild and Dobke from the German pharmaceutical company ''

Temmler Temmler Werke GmbH was founded in Detmold in 1917 by Hermann Temmler. The Temmler Group is a German pharmaceutical company, which focuses on the production, sale and contract production of pharmaceutical products. In 2012 the Temmler Group was tak ...

'' developed an easier method for converting ephedrine to methamphetamine. As a result, it was possible for Temmler to market it on a large scale as a nonprescription drug under the trade name ''Pervitin'' (methamphetamine hydrochloride). Pervitin was commonly used by the German and Finnish militaries.

Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and the ...

is rumored to have begun using amphetamine occasionally after 1937, and to have become addicted to it in late 1942; although this is disputed by historians who argue he was suffering from health issues. It was widely distributed across German military ranks and divisions, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel, with millions of tablets being distributed for its stimulant effects and to induce extended wakefulness. More than 35 million three-milligram doses of Pervitin were manufactured for the German army and air force between April and July 1940; however, this amounts to only three tablets per serviceman a month. Use of Pervitin was restricted by the Wehrmacht and Nazi Germany as a whole under the Opium Law, which required the drug be obtained through a physician's prescription. After April 1941 the drug was no longer distributed to servicemen on a mass scale due to its dangerous side effects, and several deaths were attributed to Pervitin. Use continued albeit closely monitored. In the military, Pervitin was discouraged during combat due to its negative side effects, it was more commonly abused behind the front lines. Despite the new controls, authorities observed that Pervitin consumption rose rapidly, and so did civilian production, from about seven and a half million tablets in 1941, to nine million tablets in 1942 and a similar amount the following year, to eight million tablets in 1944. As a rule, military production was about half of civilian production. These numbers can be misleading as Nazi Germany had a population of over 80 million during the war, individuals acquired only small numbers of doses at a time and were required to report usage to the authorities. In Japan, methamphetamine was sold under the registered trademark of ''Philopon'' by Dainippon Pharmaceuticals (present-day

Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma is a pharmaceutical company based in Japan. Its headquarters are in Chuo-ku, Osaka. The original Dainippon Pharmaceuticals (Dainippon Seiyaku) was established in 1885 by Nagayo Sensai, a graduate of Tekijuku – the first private medical scho ...

SP for civilian and military use. It has been estimated that one billion Philopon pills were produced between 1939 and 1945. As with the rest of the world at the time, the side effects of methamphetamine were not well studied, and regulation was not seen as necessary. In the 1940s and 1950s, the drug was widely administered to Japanese industrial workers to increase their productivity. In Finland, Pervitin was colloquially known as ''höökipulveri'' ("pep powder"). Its use was essentially restricted to special forces, especially to long-range commandos. Amphetamine was also given to Allied bomber pilots during World War II to sustain them by fighting off fatigue and enhancing focus during long flights. During the

Persian Gulf War The Gulf War was a 1990–1991 armed campaign waged by a Coalition of the Gulf War, 35-country military coalition in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Spearheaded by the United States, the coalition's efforts against Ba'athist Iraq, ...

, amphetamine became the drug of choice for American bomber pilots, being used on a voluntary basis by roughly half of

U.S. Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of the United States Army Sign ...

pilots. The Tarnak Farm incident during the War in Afghanistan (2001-21), in which an American

F-16 The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successf ...

pilot killed several friendly Canadian soldiers on the ground, was blamed by the pilot on his use of amphetamine. A nonjudicial ( UCMJ Article 15) U.S. Air Force hearing rejected the pilot's claim. Due to amphetamines' addiction liability in some people, newer wakefulness-promoting drugs such as

modafinil Modafinil, sold under the brand name Provigil among others, is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant medication used to treat sleepiness due to narcolepsy, shift work sleep disorder, and obstructive sleep apnea. While it has seen off-la ...

have been seen as possible safer alternatives for military use in some countries, including the United States.

Society and culture

In television

AMC's ''

Breaking Bad ''Breaking Bad'' is an American crime drama television series created and produced by Vince Gilligan. Set and filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the series follows Walter White (Bryan Cranston), an underpaid, overqualified, and dispirited h ...

'', a crime drama series revolving around the large-scale illicit production of methamphetamine, has been lauded by critics and audiences alike for its realist approach to the portrayal of the international drug trade. It has also been called a "contemporary western" by series creator Vince Gilligan.

In literature

The writers and poets of the

Beat Generation The Beat Generation was a literary subculture movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-war era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized by Silent Genera ...

used amphetamine extensively, mainly under the

brand name.

Jack Kerouac Jean-Louis Lebris de Kérouac (; March 12, 1922 – October 21, 1969), known as Jack Kerouac, was an American novelist and poet who, alongside William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, was a pioneer of the Beat Generation. Of French-Canadian an ...

was a particularly avid user of amphetamine, which was said to provide him with the stamina needed to work on his novels for extended periods of time. In 1965, beat writer

Allen Ginsberg Irwin Allen Ginsberg (; June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet and writer. As a student at Columbia University in the 1940s, he began friendships with William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, forming the core of the Beat Gener ...

, a member of the hippie

counterculture A counterculture is a culture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, sometimes diametrically opposed to mainstream cultural mores.Eric Donald Hirsch. ''The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy''. H ...

, which was very critical of substituted amphetamines, did an interview with the ''

Los Angeles Free Press The ''Los Angeles Free Press'', also called the "''Freep''", is often cited as the first, and certainly was the largest, of the underground newspapers of the 1960s. The ''Freep'' was founded in 1964 by Art Kunkin, who served as its publisher un ...

'' in which he commented that "Speed is antisocial, paranoid making, it's a drag... all the nice gentle dope fiends are getting screwed up by the real horror monster Frankenstein speed freaks who are going round stealing and bad-mouthing everybody". However, he also acknowledged that he had used speed to stay up all night writing. Amphetamine is frequently mentioned in the work of American journalist Hunter S. Thompson. Speed not only appears among the inventory of drugs Thompson consumed for what could broadly be defined as recreational purposes but also receives frequent, explicit mention as an essential component of his writing toolkit, such as in his "Author's Note" in '' Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72.''

One afternoon about three days ago he publishersshowed up at my door with no warning, and loaded about forty pounds of supplies into the room: two cases of Mexican beer, four quarts of gin, a dozen grapefruits, and enough speed to alter the outcome of six
Super Bowl The Super Bowl is the annual final playoff game of the National Football League (NFL) to determine the league champion. It has served as the final game of every NFL season since 1966, replacing the NFL Championship Game. Since 2022, the gam ...
s. ... Meanwhile, ..with the final chapter still unwritten and the presses scheduled to start rolling in twenty-four hours .. unless somebody shows up pretty soon with extremely powerful speed, there might not ''be'' a final chapter. About four fingers of king-hell Crank would do the trick, but I am not optimistic.

Hubert Selby Jr.'s 1978 novel ''

Requiem for a Dream ''Requiem for a Dream'' is a 2000 American psychological drama film directed by Darren Aronofsky and starring Ellen Burstyn, Jared Leto, Jennifer Connelly, Christopher McDonald and Marlon Wayans. It is based on the 1978 novel of the same na ...

'' involves one of the main characters, a widowed mother named Sara Goldfarb, getting prescribed amphetamine diet pills in order to lose weight. As she waits for a call back from the casting company for her dream TV show appearance, she slowly gets more addicted to the pills. She eventually develops amphetamine psychosis and is committed to a

mental institution Psychiatric hospitals, also known as mental health hospitals, behavioral health hospitals, are hospitals or wards specializing in the treatment of severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, dissociative ...

, where she undergoes ECT for her dissociative symptoms. These scenes were portrayed in the 2000 adaptation of the same name, where Sara is played by

Ellen Burstyn Ellen Burstyn (born Edna Rae Gillooly; December 7, 1932) is an American actress. Known for her portrayals of complicated women in dramas, she is the recipient of numerous accolades, including an Academy Award, a Tony Award, and two Primetime Em ...

. Scottish author

Irvine Welsh Irvine Welsh (born 27 September 1958) is a Scottish novelist, playwright and short story writer. His 1993 novel '' Trainspotting'' was made into a film of the same name. He has also written plays and screenplays, and directed several short fil ...

often portrays drug use in his novels, though in one of his journalism works he comments on how drugs (including amphetamine) have become part of consumerism and how his novels '' Trainspotting'' and '' Porno'' reflect the changes in drug use and culture during the years that elapsed between the two texts. Millennial writers, such as Tao Lin and Megan Boyle, have used amphetamines in the form of Adderall heavily. Lin wrote about using Adderall in his novel ''Taipei''. Boyle in her novel ''Liveblog''. Both writers used amphetamines themselves while writing the aforementioned books.

In music

The northern soul and mod subcultures in England were known for their characteristic amphetamine use. Their concerts generally involved people taking amphetamines to keep dancing all night. DJ Roger Eagle got out of the northern soul scene, saying: "All they wanted was fast-tempo black dance music... ut they weretoo blocked on amphetamines to articulate exactly which

Jackie Wilson Jack Leroy Wilson Jr. (June 9, 1934 – January 21, 1984) was an American singer and performer of the 1950s and 60s. He was a prominent figure in the transition of rhythm and blues into soul. Nicknamed "Mr. Excitement", he was considered a mas ...

record they wanted me to play." Many rock songs have been written about amphetamine. For example, in the track entitled " St. Ides Heaven" from singer/songwriter,

Elliott Smith Steven Paul Smith (August 6, 1969 – October 21, 2003), known professionally as Elliott Smith, was an American singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist. Smith was born in Omaha, Nebraska, raised primarily in Texas, and lived much of hi ...

's self-titled album. " Semi Charmed Life" by Third Eye Blind explicitly references methamphetamine as does "

Geek Stink Breath "Geek Stink Breath" is a song by American rock band Green Day. It was released on September 25, 1995 as the lead single and fourth track from their fourth studio album, '' Insomniac'' (1995). The song, along with " Stuck with Me", appeared on the ...

" by Green Day. Other examples include the song "Amphetamine" by Alternative rock band Everclear, "Amphetamine" by

Three Souls in My Mind 3 is a number, numeral, and glyph. 3, three, or III may also refer to: * AD 3, the third year of the AD era * 3 BC, the third year before the AD era * March, the third month Books * '' Three of Them'' (Russian: ', literally, "three"), a 1901 ...

, "20 Dollar nose bleed" by the pop-rock band

Fall Out Boy Fall Out Boy is an American rock band formed in Wilmette, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago, in 2001. The band consists of lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Patrick Stump, bassist Pete Wentz, lead guitarist Joe Trohman, and drummer Andy Hur ...

, and "

Headfirst For Halos "Headfirst for Halos" is the sixth track and third single from My Chemical Romance's debut album, ''I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love''. It is also their third overall single. The cover of the single was seen in the "old school" ...

" by

My Chemical Romance My Chemical Romance (commonly abbreviated to MCR or My Chem) is an American rock band from Newark, New Jersey. The band's current lineup consists of lead vocalist Gerard Way, lead guitarist Ray Toro, rhythm guitarist Frank Iero, and bassist ...

. Amphetamine has influenced the aesthetics of many rock and roll bands (especially in the

garage rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...

, mod R&B,

death rock Death rock (or deathrock) is a rock music subgenre incorporating horror elements and gothic theatrics. It emerged from punk rock on the West Coast of the United States in the early 1980s and overlaps with the gothic rock and horror punk genre ...

, punk/hardcore,

gothic rock Gothic rock (also called goth rock or simply goth) is a style of rock music that emerged from post-punk in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The first post-punk bands which shifted toward dark music with gothic overtones include Siouxsie ...

and

extreme metal Extreme metal is a loosely defined umbrella term for a number of related heavy metal music subgenres that have developed since the early 1980s. It has been defined as a "cluster of metal subgenres characterized by sonic, verbal, and visual tran ...

genres).

Hüsker Dü Hüsker Dü () was an American punk rock band formed in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1979. The band's continual members were guitarist/vocalist Bob Mould, bassist/vocalist Greg Norton, and drummer/vocalist Grant Hart. They first gained notabili ...

Jesus and Mary Chain Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...

and

The Who The Who are an English rock band formed in London in 1964. Their classic lineup consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist and singer John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered ...

were keen amphetamine users in their early existences.

The Beatles The Beatles were an English Rock music, rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960, that comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the Cultural impact of the Beatles, most influential band of al ...

were said to be extensive users of phenmetrazine in their early days, something they have widely discussed in interviews over the years.

Hollywood Undead Hollywood Undead is an American rap rock band from Los Angeles, California, formed in 2005. All of the band members use pseudonyms and previously wore their own unique mask, most of which were based on the common hockey goaltender design. The ...

references the negative effects of

substituted amphetamine Substituted amphetamines are a class of compounds based upon the amphetamine structure; it includes all derivative compounds which are formed by replacing, or substituting, one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with s ...

s in the song "City" from their album ''

Swan Songs The swan song ( grc, κύκνειον ᾆσμα; la, carmen cygni) is a metaphorical phrase for a final gesture, effort, or performance given just before death or retirement. The phrase refers to an ancient belief that swans sing a beautiful so ...

''. The Red Hot Chili Peppers mentioned Benzedrine in their song ‘Wet Sand’ from the album Stadium Arcadium. Primus's songs " On the Tweek Again" and " Those Damned Blue-Collar Tweekers" directly reference widespread amphetamine use in rural America. ''

Land Speed Record The land speed record (or absolute land speed record) is the highest speed achieved by a person using a vehicle on land. There is no single body for validation and regulation; in practice the Category C ("Special Vehicles") flying start regul ...

'' is an allusion to Hüsker Dü's amphetamine use. Amphetamine was widely abused in the 1980s underground punk-rock scene. Punk-rock band NOFX have incorporated references to amphetamines and other stimulants, the two most obvious being the song "Three on Speed" from the ''Surfer'' 8-inch LP (in reference to the three guys being on amphetamine while recording the album), and the album ''The Longest Line'' is in reference to a "line" of Amphetamine ready for insufflation.

The Rolling Stones The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962. Active for six decades, they are one of the most popular and enduring bands of the rock era. In the early 1960s, the Rolling Stones pioneered the gritty, rhythmically dr ...

referenced the drug in their song "Can't You Hear Me Knocking" on the album ''

Sticky Fingers ''Sticky Fingers'' is the 9th British and 11th American studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones. The Stones released it on 23 April 1971 on their new, and own label Rolling Stones Records. They had been contracted by Decc ...

'' ("Y'all got cocaine eyes / Yeah, ya got speed-freak jive now").

Lou Reed Lewis Allan Reed (March 2, 1942October 27, 2013) was an American musician, songwriter, and poet. He was the guitarist, singer, and principal songwriter for the rock band the Velvet Underground and had a solo career that spanned five decades ...

refers explicitly to the drug on his album ''

Berlin Berlin ( , ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's most populous city, according to population within city limits. One of Germany's sixteen constitu ...

'', in the song "How Do You Think It Feels?". Reed's band

The Velvet Underground The Velvet Underground was an American rock band formed in New York City in 1964. The original line-up consisted of singer/guitarist Lou Reed, multi-instrumentalist John Cale, guitarist Sterling Morrison, and drummer Angus MacLise. MacLise ...

, a creation of

Andy Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore the relationsh ...

's Factory Years, was fueled by amphetamines, as well as naming their second album ''

White Light/White Heat ''White Light/White Heat'' is the second studio album by American rock band the Velvet Underground. Released on January 30, 1968, on Verve Records, it was the band's last studio recording with multi-instrumentalist and founding member John Cale ...

'' after the drug. The Pulp song "

Sorted for E's & Wizz "Sorted for E's & Wizz" is a song written and performed by the English band Pulp for their 1995 album ''Different Class''. Based lyrically on a phrase that lead singer Jarvis Cocker overheard at a rave, the song features lyrics examining the ho ...

" refers to British slang terms for ecstasy and amphetamines. English gothic rock band

The Sisters of Mercy The Sisters of Mercy is an English rock band, formed in 1980 in Leeds. After achieving early underground fame there, the band had their commercial breakthrough in the mid-1980s and sustained it until the early 1990s, when they stopped releasi ...

refers to the drug in their song "Amphetamine Logic" from their first album, '' First and Last and Always'', and their singer

Andrew Eldritch Andrew Eldritch (born Andrew William Harvey Taylor, 15 May 1959) is an English singer, songwriter and musician. He is the frontman and only remaining original member of the Sisters of Mercy, a band that emerged from the British post-punk scene, ...

is associated with amphetamine use. The Byrds referenced amphetamines in the 1968 song "Artificial Energy" on the album '' The Notorious Byrd Brothers''.

Bob Dylan Bob Dylan (legally Robert Dylan, born Robert Allen Zimmerman, May 24, 1941) is an American singer-songwriter. Often regarded as one of the greatest songwriters of all time, Dylan has been a major figure in popular culture during a career sp ...

's song "

Just Like a Woman "Just Like a Woman" is a song by American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan first released on his seventh studio album, ''Blonde on Blonde'' on June 20, 1966. It was written by Dylan and produced by Bob Johnston. A shorter edit was released as a sin ...

" includes the line "her fog, her amphetamine, and her pearls." Many rock and roll bands have named themselves after amphetamine and the drug slang and drug culture surrounding it. For example,

Mod revival The mod revival was a subculture that started in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s and later spread to other countries (to a lesser degree). The mod revival's mainstream popularity was relatively short, although its influence lasted for dec ...

ists The Purple Hearts named themselves after the amphetamine tablets popular with mods during the 1960s, as did the Australian band of the same name during the mid-1960s. The Amphetameanies, a ska-punk band, are also named after amphetamine, but hint at its effects in their musical style.

Dexys Midnight Runners Dexys Midnight Runners (currently officially Dexys, their former nickname, styled without an apostrophe) are an English pop rock band from Birmingham, with soul influences, who achieved major commercial success in the early to mid-1980s. They a ...

, of number-one hit "

Come On Eileen "Come On Eileen" is a song by the English group Dexys Midnight Runners (credited to Dexys Midnight Runners and the Emerald Express), released in the United Kingdom in June 1982 as a single from their second studio album '' Too-Rye-Ay''. It reac ...

", are named after "dexies", a slang term for the amphetamine

Dexedrine Dextroamphetamine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant and an amphetamine enantiomer that is prescribed for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It is also used as an athletic performance and c ...

Motörhead Motörhead () were an English rock band formed in London in 1975 by Lemmy (lead vocals, bass), Larry Wallis (guitar) and Lucas Fox (drums). Lemmy was also the primary songwriter and only constant member. The band are often considered a prec ...

derived their name from the song of the same name by Ian "Lemmy" Kilmister's earlier band, Hawkwind; the song is about a user of speed, a "motorhead". Danny Brown's album ''

XXX XXX may refer to: Codes and symbols * 30 (number), Roman numeral XXX * XXX, designating pornography ** XXX, an X rating ** .xxx, an internet top-level domain intended for pornographic sites * XXX, a symbol of the straight edge lifestyle * XXX, t ...

'' contains many references to Adderall, such as the song "Adderall Admiral".

In film

Producer

David O. Selznick David O. Selznick (May 10, 1902June 22, 1965) was an American film producer, screenwriter and film studio executive who produced '' Gone with the Wind'' (1939) and ''Rebecca'' (1940), both of which earned him an Academy Award for Best Picture. ...

, an amphetamine user, would often dictate long and rambling memos to his directors under the influence of amphetamine. The documentary ''Shadowing The Third Man'' relates that Selznick introduced ''

The Third Man ''The Third Man'' is a 1949 British film noir directed by Carol Reed, written by Graham Greene and starring Joseph Cotten, Alida Valli, Orson Welles, and Trevor Howard. Set in postwar Vienna, the film centres on American Holly Martins (Cotten ...

'' director

Carol Reed Sir Carol Reed (30 December 1906 – 25 April 1976) was an English film director and producer, best known for '' Odd Man Out'' (1947), '' The Fallen Idol'' (1948), ''The Third Man'' (1949), and ''Oliver!'' (1968), for which he was awarded the ...

to the use of amphetamine, which allowed Reed to bring the picture in below budget and on schedule by filming nearly 22 hours at a time. The title of the 2009 movie ''

'' plays on the double meaning of the word in Chinese. Besides the name for the drug, it also means "''isn't this his fate?'' " which figuratively ties to the movie's plot. The word is

transliterated Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one script to another that involves swapping letters (thus ''trans-'' + '' liter-'') in predictable ways, such as Greek → , Cyrillic → , Greek → the digraph , Armenian → or L ...

as 安非他命—" ān fēi tā mìng"—and as commonly happens with transliteration of non-Chinese terms each character has independent meaning as an individual unrelated word.

In mathematics

Perhaps the most notable example of this is

Paul Erdős Paul Erdős ( hu, Erdős Pál ; 26 March 1913 – 20 September 1996) was a Hungarian mathematician. He was one of the most prolific mathematicians and producers of mathematical conjectures of the 20th century. pursued and proposed problems in ...

, one of the most prolific and successful mathematicians in human history. He took amphetamine and

methylphenidate Methylphenidate, sold under the brand names Ritalin and Concerta among others, is the most widely prescribed central nervous system (CNS) stimulant medication used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and, to a lesser extent ...

occasionally throughout his early career. He began taking them daily at age 58, when a doctor prescribed them to him to allay the depression associated with his mother's death, and didn't stop until his death at age 83. He would also sustain himself on copious amounts of

coffee Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is the most popular hot drink in the world. Seeds of ...

and

caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine chemical classification, class. It is mainly recreational drug use, used recreationally as a Nootropic, cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional perfor ...

pills. Erdős took amphetamine despite the concern of his friends, one of whom ( Ron Graham) bet him $500 that he could not stop taking the drug for a month. Erdős won the bet, but complained:

You've showed me I'm not an addict. But I didn't get any work done. I'd get up in the morning and stare at a blank piece of paper. I'd have no ideas, just like an ordinary person. You've set mathematics back a month.

He then promptly resumed his amphetamine use.

Illicit drug culture

Rational harm assessment of drugs radar plot

Adderall in the video gaming industry

use in the video gaming industry has been receiving more and more attention in recent years. Many gamers have admitted to using it and have claimed that it has become a very widespread issue. Some gamers have even claimed that pills are regularly sold at professional tournaments. Adderall is peculiarly well suited to the medium, where victory depends on a competitor's alertness, ability to concentrate and hand-to-eye-coordination. As one StarCraft player wrote in 2011 on the game's official forums: "Adderall is basically a stimpack for gamers." The Electronic Sports League said that it would test players for performance-enhancing drugs starting at a tournament in August 2015. ESL said it would work with two international agencies – the same ones that help oversee anti-doping policies for the Olympics and other sports – to create anti-doping guidelines and a testing program for players. "We want to create a level playing field for all competitors and maintain the integrity of the sport," said James Lampkin, vice president of professional gaming at ESL. In addition to the ESL, Major League Gaming has spoken up. Bruce Dugan, a spokesman for Major League Gaming, said that the organization's policies prohibit the use of performance-enhancing drugs. However, the league has never conducted drug tests of its players. "Now that a lot of attention is being paid, it's something we'll look at for the 2016 season," spokesman Bruce Dugan said.

Amphetamines in higher education

Non-medical use of amphetamines in higher education has seen a large increase in popularity. College and other higher education students have reported using amphetamines for many different purposes such as partying, self medication, and the most common being studying. Since amphetamine use is illicit in most countries, the off-label use by students is often regarded as a major issue by most governmental regulation institutions. In the United States, amphetamine is classified by the FDA as a Schedule II controlled substance, which could potentially carry a felony offense if a non-prescribed user is found guilty of possession. Amphetamine's classification as Schedule II means it has a "high potential for abuse and could lead to psychological or physical dependence." Despite this, the trend in the use of amphetamines (both prescription and illicit) has increased steadily over time.

Recreational use

Both amphetamine and methamphetamine are used recreationally as euphoriants and

aphrodisiac An aphrodisiac is a substance that increases sexual desire, sexual attraction, sexual pleasure, or sexual behavior. Substances range from a variety of plants, spices, foods, and synthetic chemicals. Natural aphrodisiacs like cannabis or cocai ...

s, with methamphetamine being the more common recreational drug due to precursor availability and relative ease to manufacture. According to a

National Geographic ''National Geographic'' (formerly the ''National Geographic Magazine'', sometimes branded as NAT GEO) is a popular American monthly magazine published by National Geographic Partners. Known for its photojournalism, it is one of the most widel ...

TV documentary on methamphetamine, "an entire subculture known as party and play is based around methamphetamine use." Members of this San Francisco subculture, which consists almost entirely of homosexual male methamphetamine users, will typically meet up through internet dating sites and have sex. Due to its strong stimulant and aphrodisiac effects and inhibitory effect on

ejaculation Ejaculation is the discharge of semen (the ''ejaculate''; normally containing sperm) from the male reproductory tract as a result of an orgasm. It is the final stage and natural objective of male sexual stimulation, and an essential compo ...

, with repeated use, these sexual encounters will sometimes occur continuously for several days. The crash following the use of methamphetamine in this manner is very often severe, with marked

hypersomnia Hypersomnia is a neurological disorder of excessive time spent sleeping or excessive sleepiness. It can have many possible causes (such as seasonal affective disorder) and can cause distress and problems with functioning. In the fifth edition ...

Slang terms

Slang terms for methamphetamine, especially common among illicit users, are numerous and vary from region to region. Some names are crystal meth, meth, speed, crystal, ''ice'', ''shards'', ''shabu'' or ''shaboo'', ''side'', ''glass'', ''gak'', ''jib'', ''crank'', ''batu'', ''tweak'', ''piko'', ''rock'', ''tina'', ''fast'', ''pep'', ''yaba'', and ''cold''. Terms vary by region, subculture, and individual preference; some of these regional and local names include: ''Philopon'' in East Asia, ''P'' in

New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island coun ...

, " ya ba" (Thai for "Crazy Medicine") in

Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...

, ''bato'' (Filipino for rock or stone) in the

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

, ''angel delight'' in

Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to ...

and ''tik'' in

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring coun ...

. Lastly, ''Vint'', Russian for "a screw", refers to a very impure homemade form of methamphetamine in

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-ei ...

. In

and

Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...

, ya ba pills have many slang terms, "WY", such as "Athee" ( Burmese for fruit), and "88". In

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic countries, Nordic c ...

''tjack'' is a common slang term.

Recreational routes of administration

Inhalation Inhalation (or Inspiration) happens when air or other gases enter the lungs. Inhalation of air Inhalation of air, as part of the cycle of breathing, is a vital process for all human life. The process is autonomic (though there are exceptions ...

of ("

smoking Smoking is a practice in which a substance is burned and the resulting smoke is typically breathed in to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, which have b ...

") free base forms of amphetamine and methamphetamine is the fastest route of administration, although

drug injection Drug injection is a method of introducing a drug into the bloodstream via a hollow hypodermic needle, which is pierced through the skin into the body (usually intravenously, but also at an intramuscular or subcutaneous location). Intravenous t ...

(i.e. intravenous administration) results in the quickest rise in blood concentration. This is followed by

suppository A suppository is a dosage form used to deliver medications by insertion into a body orifice where it dissolves or melts to exert local or systemic effects. There are three types of suppositories, each to insert into a different sections: rectal ...

insufflation In religious and magical practice, insufflation and exsufflation are ritual acts of blowing, breathing, hissing, or puffing that signify variously expulsion or renunciation of evil or of the devil (the Evil One), or infilling or blessing with go ...

, and

oral administration Oral administration is a route of administration where a substance is taken through the mouth. Per os abbreviated to P.O. is sometimes used as a direction for medication to be taken orally. Many medications are taken orally because they are ...

=Injection

Drug injection Drug injection is a method of introducing a drug into the bloodstream via a hollow hypodermic needle, which is pierced through the skin into the body (usually intravenously, but also at an intramuscular or subcutaneous location). Intravenous t ...

via intravenous administration,

intramuscular administration Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of several methods for parenteral administration of medications. Intramuscular injection may be preferred because muscles have ...

, or subcutaneous administration carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. The doses used by recreational intravenous users vary widely, with a range of 1–200 times the doses used therapeutically (i.e., up to several grams). Intravenous users risk developing

pulmonary embolism Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a blockage of an artery in the lungs by a substance that has moved from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream ( embolism). Symptoms of a PE may include shortness of breath, chest pain particularly upon breathin ...

(PE), a blockage of the main artery of the lung or one of its branches, and commonly develop skin rashes or infections at the site of injection. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis, can be transmitted. A 2017 study involving fifty six female clients were interviewed by Nicholas E. Goeders of

Louisiana State University Louisiana State University (officially Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, commonly referred to as LSU) is a public land-grant research university in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The university was founded in 1860 n ...

suggests that the subjective rush from recreational methamphetamine use is proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drug increases. Consequently, a rapid onset of action increases the risk of

psychological dependence Psychological dependence is a cognitive disorder that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms—e.g. anxiety and anhedonia—upon cessation of prolonged drug abuse or certain repetitive behaviors. It develops through frequent exp ...

addiction Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to engage in certain behaviors, one of which is the usage of a drug, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use o ...

independently of other risk factors, such as dosage and frequency of use. Goeders concluded that "Without a doubt methamphetamine, when injected in “sufficient” purity and dose, can produce a subjective physiological response in women that is indistinguishable from an

orgasm Orgasm (from Greek , ; "excitement, swelling") or sexual climax is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual excitement during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic, involuntary muscular contractions in the pelvic region chara ...

=Inhalation

Crystal methamphetamine (most commonly, colloquially known as "crystal meth" or "ice") and free base forms of amphetamine are sufficiently volatile substances and this allows them to be vaporized by high heat (i.e. using a lighter) and the fumes are inhaled (or "smoked") from glass paraphernalia known as base pipes (most commonly, colloquially referred to as "bowl", "globe" or simply "pipe"). The National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2016 by the

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) is Australia's national agency for information and statistics on Australia's health and welfare. Statistics and data developed by the AIHW are used extensively to inform discussion and policy ...

revealed that smoking is an increasingly favored route of administration among methamphetamine users in Australia. The National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2019 suggests overall rates of methamphetamine use have declined over recent years, but among those who do use methamphetamine, 'ice' is the more popular form of the drug, and those who use 'ice' (as opposed to other forms of methamphetamine) are more likely to use it more regularly. Ya ba (a pill containing caffeine and methamphetamine) smokers often use a technique in which a ya ba pill is placed on aluminium foil that is heated underneath with a lighter, in turn vaporizing the pill so that it can be inhaled through a heat-resistant pipe. This method of administration is sometimes referred to as " chasing the dragon".

Insufflation

Crystal methamphetamine and salts of amphetamine are sometimes powdered and insufflated by recreational users, which results in a fairly rapid uptake of the drug through the nasal

epithelium Epithelium or epithelial tissue is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. It is a thin, continuous, protective layer of compactly packed cells with a little intercellul ...

; with regular use, amphetamine or methamphetamine insufflation slowly damages and eventually destroys the

nasal septum The nasal septum () separates the left and right airways of the nasal cavity, dividing the two nostrils. It is depressed by the depressor septi nasi muscle. Structure The fleshy external end of the nasal septum is called the columella or co ...

due to their causticity and vasoconstrictive effects.

=Rectal and vaginal

Rectal administration Rectal administration uses the rectum as a route of administration for medication and other fluids, which are absorbed by the rectum's blood vessels,The rectum has numerous blood vessels available to absorb drugs. and flow into the body's ci ...

and intravaginal administration are less-popular drug routes in the community with comparatively little research into their effects. Information on their use is largely anecdotal with reports of increased sexual pleasure and the effects of the drug lasting longer, though as methamphetamine is centrally active in the brain, these effects are likely experienced through the higher bioavailability of the drug in the bloodstream and the faster onset of action than many other routes of administration. Nicknames for the routes of administration within some methamphetamine communities include a "butt rocket", a "booty bump", "potato thumping", "turkey basting", "plugging", "booty-whaap", "boofing", "suitcasing", "hooping", "keistering", "shafting", "bumming", and "shelving" (vaginal).

Illegal synthesis

Methamphetamine is most structurally similar to amphetamine. Synthesis is relatively simple, but entails risk with flammable and corrosive chemicals, particularly the solvents used in extraction and purification. The six major routes of production begin with either phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) or with one of the isomeric compounds

pseudoephedrine Pseudoephedrine (PSE) is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It may be used as a nasal/sinus decongestant, as a stimulant, or as a wakefulness-promoting agent in higher doses. It was first charact ...

and ephedrine. One procedure uses the

reductive amination Reductive amination (also known as reductive alkylation) is a form of amination that involves the conversion of a carbonyl group to an amine via an intermediate imine. The carbonyl group is most commonly a ketone or an aldehyde. It is considered ...

of phenylacetone with

methylamine Methylamine is an organic compound with a formula of . This colorless gas is a derivative of ammonia, but with one hydrogen atom being replaced by a methyl group. It is the simplest primary amine. Methylamine is sold as a solution in methanol, ...

, P2P was usually obtained from

phenylacetic acid Phenylacetic acid (PAA; conjugate base phenylacetate), also known by various synonyms, is an organic compound containing a phenyl functional group and a carboxylic acid functional group. It is a white solid with a strong honey-like odor. Endogen ...

and

acetic anhydride Acetic anhydride, or ethanoic anhydride, is the chemical compound with the formula (CH3CO)2O. Commonly abbreviated Ac2O, it is the simplest isolable anhydride of a carboxylic acid and is widely used as a reagent in organic synthesis. It is a co ...

, p. 90. and phenylacetic acid might arise from

benzaldehyde Benzaldehyde (C6H5CHO) is an organic compound consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl substituent. It is the simplest aromatic aldehyde and one of the most industrially useful. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic almond-like odor. ...

, benzylcyanide, or benzylchloride. Methylamine is crucial to all such methods, and is produced from the model airplane fuel

nitromethane Nitromethane, sometimes shortened to simply "nitro", is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is the simplest organic nitro compound. It is a polar liquid commonly used as a solvent in a variety of industrial applications such as in ...

, or

formaldehyde Formaldehyde ( , ) ( systematic name methanal) is a naturally occurring organic compound with the formula and structure . The pure compound is a pungent, colourless gas that polymerises spontaneously into paraformaldehyde (refer to section ...

and ammonium chloride, or

methyl iodide Iodomethane, also called methyl iodide, and commonly abbreviated "MeI", is the chemical compound with the formula CH3I. It is a dense, colorless, volatile liquid. In terms of chemical structure, it is related to methane by replacement of one ...

with

hexamine Hexamethylenetetramine, also known as methenamine, hexamine, or urotropin, is a heterocyclic organic compound with the formula (CH2)6N4. This white crystalline compound is highly soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It has a cage-like s ...

. This was once the preferred method of production by

in California, until DEA restrictions on the chemicals made the process difficult. Pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, phenylacetone, and phenylacetic acid are currently DEA list I and acetic anhydride is list II on the DEA list of chemicals subject to regulation and control measures. This method can involve the use of

mercuric chloride Mercury(II) chloride (or mercury bichloride, mercury dichloride), historically also known as sulema or corrosive sublimate, is the inorganic chemical compound of mercury and chlorine with the formula HgCl2. It is white crystalline solid and is a ...

and leaves behind mercury and

lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, ...

environmental wastes. The methamphetamine produced by this method is

racemic In chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate (), is one that has equal amounts of left- and right-handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule or salt. Racemic mixtures are rare in nature, but many compounds are produced industrially as racemates. ...

, consisting partly of the less-desired levomethamphetamine isomer, though separation of the two enantiomeric forms through selective recrystallization of the tartrate salt can occur in order to isolate the more active dextromethamphetamine. The alternative Leuckart route also relies on P2P to produce a racemic product, but proceeds via methylformamide in

formic acid Formic acid (), systematically named methanoic acid, is the simplest carboxylic acid, and has the chemical formula HCOOH and structure . It is an important intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs naturally, most notably in some ants. Est ...

to an intermediate N-formyl-methamphetamine, which is then decarboxylated with

hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid, also known as muriatic acid, is an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride. It is a colorless solution with a distinctive pungent smell. It is classified as a strong acid. It is a component of the gastric acid in the dige ...

. Illicit methamphetamine is more commonly made by the reduction of ephedrine or

, which produces the more active d-methamphetamine isomer. The maximum conversion rate for ephedrine and pseudoephedrine is 92%, although typically, illicit methamphetamine laboratories convert at a rate of 50% to 75%. Most methods of illicit production involve

protonation In chemistry, protonation (or hydronation) is the adding of a proton (or hydron, or hydrogen cation), (H+) to an atom, molecule, or ion, forming a conjugate acid. (The complementary process, when a proton is removed from a Brønsted–Lowry acid ...

of the

hydroxyl In chemistry, a hydroxy or hydroxyl group is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydrox ...

group on the ephedrine or pseudoephedrine molecule. Though dating back to the discovery of the drug, the Nagai route did not become popular among illicit manufacturers until 1982, and comprised 20% of production in Michigan in 2002. It involves

and

hydrogen iodide Hydrogen iodide () is a diatomic molecule and hydrogen halide. Aqueous solutions of HI are known as hydroiodic acid or hydriodic acid, a strong acid. Hydrogen iodide and hydroiodic acid are, however, different in that the former is a gas under ...

(also known as hydroiodic acid or iohydroic acid). (The hydrogen iodide is replaced by iodine and water in the "Moscow route".) The hydrogen iodide is used to reduce either ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. On heating, the precursor is rapidly iodinated by the hydrogen iodide to form iodoephedrine. The phosphorus assists in the second step, by consuming iodine to form phosphorus triiodide (which decomposes in water to

phosphorous acid Phosphorous acid (or phosphonic acid (singular)) is the compound described by the formula H3PO3. This acid is diprotic (readily ionizes two protons), not triprotic as might be suggested by this formula. Phosphorous acid is an intermediate in th ...

, regenerating hydrogen iodide). Because hydrogen iodide exists in a

chemical equilibrium In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both the reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the ...

with iodine and hydrogen, the phosphorus reaction shifts the balance toward hydrogen production when iodine is consumed (see Le Châtelier's principle). (online version, 2005, a

In Australia, criminal groups have been known to substitute "red" phosphorus with either

hypophosphorous acid Hypophosphorous acid (HPA), or phosphinic acid, is a phosphorus oxyacid and a powerful reducing agent with molecular formula H3PO2. It is a colorless low-melting compound, which is soluble in water, dioxane and alcohols. The formula for this ...

(the "Hypo route"). This is a hazardous process for amateur chemists because

phosphine Phosphine (IUPAC name: phosphane) is a colorless, flammable, highly toxic compound with the chemical formula , classed as a pnictogen hydride. Pure phosphine is odorless, but technical grade samples have a highly unpleasant odor like rotting ...

gas, a side-product from

in situ ''In situ'' (; often not italicized in English) is a Latin phrase that translates literally to "on site" or "in position." It can mean "locally", "on site", "on the premises", or "in place" to describe where an event takes place and is used in ...

hydrogen iodide production, is extremely toxic to inhale. The reaction can also create toxic, flammable white phosphorus waste. Methamphetamine produced in this way is usually more than 95% pure. The conceptually similar Emde route involves reduction of ephedrine to chloroephedrine using

thionyl chloride Thionyl chloride is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a moderately volatile, colourless liquid with an unpleasant acrid odour. Thionyl chloride is primarily used as a chlorinating reagent, with approximately per year bein ...

(SOCl₂), followed by

catalytic Catalysis () is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst (). Catalysts are not consumed in the reaction and remain unchanged after it. If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst recyc ...

hydrogenation Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. The process is commonly employed to reduce or saturate organic ...

. The catalysts for this reaction are

palladium Palladium is a chemical element with the symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself ...

platinum Platinum is a chemical element with the symbol Pt and atomic number 78. It is a dense, malleable, ductile, highly unreactive, precious, silverish-white transition metal. Its name originates from Spanish , a diminutive of "silver". Pla ...

. The Rosenmund route also uses hydrogen gas and a palladium catalyst poisoned with

barium sulfate Barium sulfate (or sulphate) is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Ba SO4. It is a white crystalline solid that is odorless and insoluble in water. It occurs as the mineral barite, which is the main commercial source of barium and ...

(

Rosenmund reduction The Rosenmund reduction is a hydrogenation process in which an acyl chloride is selectively reduced to an aldehyde. The reaction was named after Karl Wilhelm Rosenmund, who first reported it in 1918. The reaction, a hydrogenolysis, is catalys ...

), but uses

perchloric acid Perchloric acid is a mineral acid with the formula H Cl O4. Usually found as an aqueous solution, this colorless compound is a stronger acid than sulfuric acid, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. It is a powerful oxidizer when hot, but aqueo ...

instead of thionyl chloride. The

Birch reduction The Birch reduction is an organic reaction that is used to convert arenes to cyclohexadienes. The reaction is named after the Australian chemist Arthur Birch and involves the organic reduction of aromatic rings in an amine solvent (traditionally ...

, also called the "Nazi method", became popular in the mid-to-late 1990s and comprised the bulk of methamphetamine production in Michigan in 2002. It reacts pseudoephedrine with liquid

anhydrous ammonia Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . A stable binary hydride, and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous wast ...

and an alkali metal such as

sodium Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na (from Latin ''natrium'') and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table. Its only stable ...

lithium Lithium (from el, λίθος, lithos, lit=stone) is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense soli ...

. The reaction is allowed to stand until the ammonia evaporates. However, the Birch reduction is dangerous because the alkali metal and ammonia are both extremely reactive, and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added. It has been the most popular method in

Midwest The Midwestern United States, also referred to as the Midwest or the American Midwest, is one of four Census Bureau Region, census regions of the United States Census Bureau (also known as "Region 2"). It occupies the northern central part of ...

ern states of the U.S. because of the ready availability of liquid ammonia fertilizer in farming regions. In recent years, a simplified "Shake 'n Bake"

one-pot synthesis In chemistry a one-pot synthesis is a strategy to improve the efficiency of a chemical reaction whereby a reactant is subjected to successive chemical reactions in just one reactor. This is much desired by chemists because avoiding a lengthy sepa ...

has become more popular. The method is suitable for such small batches that pseudoephedrine restrictions are less effective, it uses chemicals that are easier to obtain (though no less dangerous than traditional methods), and it is so easy to carry out that some chemists have synthesized the substance while driving. It involves placing crushed pseudoephedrine tablets into a nonpressurized container containing

ammonium nitrate Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline salt consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is ...

, water, and a

hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water (known as a hydrophobe). In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, ...

solvent such as

Coleman fuel Coleman fuel, also generically sold as white gas, is a petroleum naphtha product marketed by the Coleman Company. Contents Historically called ''white gas'', it is a liquid petroleum fuel (100% light hydrotreated distillate), composed of cycloh ...

or automotive

starting fluid Starting fluid is a volatile, flammable liquid which is used to aid the starting of internal combustion engines, especially during cold weather or in engines that are difficult to start using conventional starting procedures. It is typically avail ...

, to which lye and

(from

lithium batteries Lithium battery may refer to: * Lithium metal battery, a non-rechargeable battery with lithium as an anode ** Rechargeable lithium metal battery, a rechargeable counterpart to the lithium metal battery * Lithium-ion battery, a rechargeable batte ...

) is added. The container needs to be "burped" periodically to prevent failure under accumulating pressure. The battery lithium can react with water to shatter a container and potentially start a fire or explosion.

Hydrogen chloride The compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula and as such is a hydrogen halide. At room temperature, it is a colourless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric water vapor. Hydrogen chlorid ...

gas produced by a reaction of salt with

sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphuric acid ( Commonwealth spelling), known in antiquity as oil of vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen and hydrogen, with the molecular fo ...

is then used to recover crystals for purification.

Illegal laboratories

Short-term exposure to high concentrations of chemical vapors that exist in black-market methamphetamine laboratories can cause severe health problems and death. Exposure to these substances can occur from volatile air emissions, spills, fires, and explosions. Such methamphetamine labs are sometimes discovered when emergency personnel respond to fires due to improper handling of volatile or flammable materials. Single-pot "shake and bake" syntheses are particularly prone to explode and ignite, and, when abandoned, still pose a severe hazard to firefighters. Ingredients involved in synthesizing methamphetamine products illicitly (and seldom amphetamine as well) may be carcinogens, flammable, prone to react violently and explode with great force, or corrosive, as well as the compounds used to synthesize the aforementioned ingredients. Methamphetamine cooks, their families, and first responders are at high risk of experiencing acute health effects from chemical exposure, including lung damage and chemical burns to the body. After the seizure of a methamphetamine lab, a low exposure risk to chemical residues often exists, but this contamination can be sanitized. Chemical residues and lab wastes that are left behind at a former methamphetamine lab can cause severe health problems for people who use the property.

Impurities and adulterants

In Japan, methamphetamine seizures are usually white crystals of high purity, but contain impurities that vary according to the means of production, and are sometimes adulterated. Diagnostic impurities are the

naphthalene Naphthalene is an organic compound with formula . It is the simplest polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, and is a white crystalline solid with a characteristic odor that is detectable at concentrations as low as 0.08 ppm by mass. As an aromat ...

s 1-benzyl-methylnaphthalene and 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenylnaphthalene, arising in the Nagai and Leuckart routes, and ''cis-'' or ''trans-'' 1,2-dimethyl-3-phenylaziridine, ephedrine, or erythro-3,4-dimethyl- 5-phenyloxazolidine, arising in the Nagai and Emde routes; these are absent in the reductive amination route. Characteristic impurities of the Birch route include N-methyl-1-(1-(1,4-cyclohexadienyl))-2-propanamine. Methamphetamine produced by the Birch route contains phenyl-2-propanone, the precursor for the reductive amination route, as a degradation product. However, specific diagnostic impurities are not very reliable in practice, and it is generally preferable for forensic technicians to evaluate a larger profile of trace compounds. A common adulterant is dimethyl sulfone, a solvent and cosmetic base without known effect on the nervous system; other adulterants include

dimethylamphetamine Dimethylamphetamine (Metrotonin), also known as dimetamfetamine (INN), dimephenopan and ''N'',''N''-dimethylamphetamine, is a stimulant drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. Dimethylamphetamine has weaker stimulant effects ...

HCl, ephedrine HCl,

sodium thiosulfate Sodium thiosulfate (sodium thiosulphate) is an inorganic compound with the formula . Typically it is available as the white or colorless pentahydrate, . The solid is an efflorescent (loses water readily) crystalline substance that dissolves well ...

sodium chloride Sodium chloride , commonly known as salt (although sea salt also contains other chemical salts), is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. With molar masses of 22.99 and 35. ...

sodium glutamate Monosodium glutamate (MSG), also known as sodium glutamate, is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. MSG is found naturally in some foods including tomatoes and cheese in this glutamic acid form. MSG is used in cooking as a flavor enhancer w ...

, and a mixture of

with

sodium benzoate Sodium benzoate is the sodium salt of benzoic acid, widely used as a food preservative (with an E number of E211) and a pickling agent. It appears as a white crystalline chemical with the formula C6H5COONa. Production Sodium benzoate is commo ...

. In the United States, illicit methamphetamine comes in a variety of forms with prices varying widely over time. Most commonly, it is found as a colorless

crystalline A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...

solid. Impurities may result in a brownish or tan color. Colorful flavored pills containing methamphetamine and

are known as ya ba (Thai for "crazy medicine"). An impure form of methamphetamine is sold as a crumbly brown or off-white rock, commonly referred to as "peanut butter crank". It may be diluted or cut with non-psychoactive substances like

inositol Inositol, or more precisely ''myo''-inositol, is a carbocyclic sugar that is abundant in the brain and other mammalian tissues; it mediates cell signal transduction in response to a variety of hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors and ...

isopropylbenzylamine -isopropylbenzylamine is a compound that has appeared in chemical literature often playing an intermediary role in applications of experimental synthesis and novel organic transformations. Despite having limited documented uses, it is most well kn ...

or dimethylsulfone. Another popular method is to combine methamphetamine with other stimulant substances, such as caffeine or

cathine -norpseudoephedrine, also known as cathine and (+)-norpseudoephedrine, is a psychoactive drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes which acts as a stimulant. Along with cathinone, it is found naturally in ''Catha edulis'' (kh ...

, into a pill known as a "Kamikaze", which can be particularly dangerous due to the synergistic effects of multiple stimulants. Reports in 2007 of the appearance of flavored " Strawberry Quik meth" circulated in the media and local law enforcement, but were debunked in 2010 by the DEA, although meth of varying ''colors'' has been seized. Rarely, the impure reaction mixture from the hydrogen iodide/red phosphorus route is used without further modification, usually by injection; it is called "ox blood". "Meth oil" refers to the crude methamphetamine base produced by several synthesis procedures. Ordinarily it is purified by exposure to hydrogen chloride, as a solution or as a bubbled gas, and extraction of the resulting salt occurs by precipitation and/or recrystallization with ether/acetone.

Trafficking and distribution

Until the early 1990s, the U.S. market for methamphetamine was supplied mostly by labs run by drug traffickers in both

Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...

and California. drug and lab seizure data suggests that approximately 80% of the methamphetamine used in the United States originates from larger laboratories operated by Mexican-based syndicates on both sides of the border; approximately 20 percent comes from small toxic labs (STLs) in the United States. The 2006 National Drug Threat Assessment, produced by the

Department of Justice A justice ministry, ministry of justice, or department of justice is a ministry or other government agency in charge of the administration of justice. The ministry or department is often headed by a minister of justice (minister for justice in a ...

, found "decreased domestic methamphetamine production in both small and large-scale laboratories." It also noted a decline in domestic methamphetamine manufacture which was replaced by an increase in illicit Mexican production. the

Sinaloa Cartel The Sinaloa Cartel ( es, link=no, Cártel de Sinaloa), also known as the CDS, the Guzmán-Loera Organization, the Pacific Cartel, the Federation and the Blood Alliance, is a large, international organized crime syndicate that specializes in il ...

is the most active

drug cartel A drug cartel is any criminal organization with the intention of supplying drug trafficking operations. They range from loosely managed agreements among various drug traffickers to formalized commercial enterprises. The term was applied when the l ...

involved in smuggling methamphetamine and other illicit drugs into the United States and trafficking wholesale quantities throughout the United States.

Notes

References

External links

Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre
* (See

Oliver Sacks Oliver Wolf Sacks, (9 July 1933 – 30 August 2015) was a British neurologist, naturalist, historian of science, and writer. Born in Britain, Sacks received his medical degree in 1958 from The Queen's College, Oxford, before moving to the Uni ...

.) {{Drug use Methamphetamine Youth culture in the United Kingdom Amphetamine Drug culture