Haemorrhagic septicaemia is one of the most economically important pasteurelloses.De Alwis MCL (1999) Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 11–24.Carter GR and De Alwis MCL (1989) Haemorrhagic septicaemia. In: C. Adlam and J. M. Rutter, editors. Pasteurella and Pasteurellosis. Academic Press, London. pp. 131–160. Haemorrhagic septicaemia in cattle and buffaloes was previously known to be associated with one of two serotypes of '' P. multocida'': Asian B:2 and African E:2 according to the Carter-Heddleston system, or 6:B and 6:E using the Namioka-Carter system. The disease occurs mainly in cattle and buffaloes, but has also been reported in

goat The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...

s (''Capra aegagrus hircus''),FAO (1959) Report of the FAO meeting on haemorrhagic septicaemia. Manila, Philippines.FAO (1979). In: FAO, editor editors. Proceedings of the third international workshop on haemorrhagic septicaemia. Colombo, Sri Lanka: FAO-APHCA.FAO (1991). Proceedings of the fourth international workshop on haemorrhagic septicaemia. Kandy, Sri Lanka: FAO-APHCA Publication No. 1991/13. African buffalo ('' Syncerus nanus''),Kasali OB (1972) A case of haemorrhagic septicaemia in an African buffalo ('' Syncerus nanus''). Bull Epizoot Dis Afr 20: 203-204. camels,Bain RVS, De Alwis MCL, Carter GR and Gupta BK (1982) Haemorrhagic septicaemia. FAO animal production and health paper No 33. Rome. horses and donkeys (''

Equus africanus asinus The domestic donkey is a hoofed mammal in the family Equidae, the same family as the horse. It derives from the African wild ass, ''Equus africanus'', and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, ''Equus africanus asinus'', or as a ...

''),Pavri KM and Apte VH (1967) Isolation of ''Pasteurella multocida'' from a fatal disease of horses and donkeys in India. Vet Rec 80: 437-439. in pigs infected by serogroup B,Awad FI, Salem AA and Fayed AA (1976) Studies on clinical signs observed on experimentally infected animals with Pasteurella multocida type I. Egyptian Journal of Veterinary Science 13: 53-56.Pillai AGR, Katiyar AK, Awadhiya RP and Vegad JL (1986) An outbreak of pasteurellosis in swine. Indian Vet J 63: 527-529. and in wild

elephant Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae an ...

s (''Elephas maximus'').De Alwis MCL and Thambithurai V (1965) A case of haemorrhagic septicaemia in a wild elephant in Ceylon. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 13: 17-19. De Alwis MCL (1982) Pasteurella multocida serotype 6:B from an elephant. Sri Lanka Veterinary Journal 30: 28.Wickremasuriya UGJS and Kendaragama KMT (1982) A case of haemorrhagic septicaemia in a wild elephant. Sri Lanka Veterinary Journal 30: 34. Serotypes B:1 and B:3,4 have caused a septicaemic disease in antelope (''

Antilocapra americana The pronghorn (, ) (''Antilocapra americana'') is a species of artiodactyl (even-toed, hoofed) mammal indigenous to interior western and central North America. Though not an antelope, it is known colloquially in North America as the American ante ...

'') and elk (''

Cervus canadensis The elk (''Cervus canadensis''), also known as the wapiti, is one of the largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. The comm ...

''), respectively. Serotype B:4 was associated with the disease in bison (''

Bison bison The American bison (''Bison bison'') is a species of bison native to North America. Sometimes colloquially referred to as American buffalo or simply buffalo (a different clade of bovine), it is one of two extant species of bison, alongside th ...

''). Rimler RB (1993) Serology and virulence of haemorrhagic septicaemia ''Pasteurella multocida'' isolatd from domestic and feral ruminants. In: B. E. Patten, T. L. Spencer, R. B. Johnson, D. Hoffmann and L. Lehane, editors. Pasteurellosis in production animals, an international workshop held at Bali, Indonesia, 10–13 August 1992. ACIAR Proceedings No. 43. pp. 44–46. Serotypes E:2 and B:2 were associated with HS outbreaks in Africa and Asia respectively. Serotype E:2 was reported in Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Cameroon, the Central African Republic and Zambia.Francis BKT, Schels HF and Carter GR (1980) Type E Pasteurella multocida associated with haemorrhagic septicaemia in Zambia. Vet Rec 107: 135. However, it is now inaccurate to associate outbreaks in Africa with serotype E:2 as many outbreaks of HS in Africa have now been associated with serogroup B.Dziva F, Muhairwa AP, Christensen H and Bisgaard M (2008) Diagnostic and typing options for investigating diseases associated with Pasteurella multocida. Vet Microbiol 128: 1-22. In the same manner, serogroup E has been associated with outbreaks in Asia. For instance, one record of "Asian serotype" (B:2) was reported in Cameroon.Martrenchar A (1993) Haemorrhagic septicaemia in Cameroon. Vet Rec 133: 25-26. Some reports showed that serotype B:2 may be present in some East African countries.De Alwis MCL (1999) Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 33–42. Both serogroups B and E have been reported in Egypt and Sudan.Shigidi MT and Mustafa AA (1979) Biochemical and serological studies on Pasteurella multocida isolated from cattle in Sundan. Cornell Vet 69: 77-84. Natural routes of infection are inhalation and/or ingestion. Experimental transmission has succeeded using intranasal aerosol spray or oral drenching. When subcutaneous inoculation is used experimentally, it results in rapid onset of the disease, a shorter clinical course and less marked pathological lesions compared to the longer course of disease and more profound lesions of oral drenching and the intranasal infection by aerosols.De Alwis MCL (1999) Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 25–32. When HS was introduced for the first time into a geographic area, morbidity and mortality rates were high,De Alwis MCL and Vipulasiri AA (1980) An epizootiological study of haemorrhagic septicaemia in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 28: 24-35. approaching 100% unless animals were treated in the very early stages of disease.

Clinical signs

A wide variety of clinical signs have been described for HS in cattle and buffaloes. The incubation periods (the time between exposure and observable disease) for buffalo calves 4–10 months of age varies according to the route of infection. The incubation period is 12–14 hours, approximately 30 hours and 46–80 hours for subcutaneous infection, oral infection and natural exposure, respectively. There is variability in the duration of the clinical course of the disease. In the case of experimental subcutaneous infection, the clinical course lasted only a few hours, while it persisted for 2–5 days following oral infection and in buffaloes and cattle that had been exposed to naturally-infected animals. It has also been recorded from field observations that the clinical courses of per-acute and acute cases were 4–12 hours and 2–3 days, respectively.Saharee AA and Salim N (1991) The epidemiology of haemorrhagic septicaemia in cattle and buffaloes in Malaysia. FAO. pp. 109–112. Generally, progression of the disease in buffaloes and cattle is divided into three phases. Phase one is characterised by fever, with a rectal temperature of , loss of appetite and depression. Phase two is typified by increased respiration rate (40–50/minute), laboured breathing, clear nasal discharge (turns opaque and mucopurulent as the disease progresses), salivation and submandibular oedema spreading to the pectoral (brisket) region and even to the forelegs. Finally, in phase three, there is typically recumbency, continued acute respiratory distress and terminal septicaemia.Horadagoda NU, De Alwis MCL, Wijewardana TG, Belak K, Gomis AIU, et al. (1991) Experimental haemorrhagic septicaemia in buffalo calves. FAO. pp. 73–80. The three phases overlap when the disease course is short. In general, buffaloes have a more acute onset of disease than cattle, with a shorter duration.Graydon RJ, Patten BE and Hamid H (1993) The pathology of experimental haemorrhagic septicaemia in cattle and buffalo. In: B. E. Patten, T. L. Spencer, R. B. Johnson, D. Hoffmann and L. Lehane, editors. Pasteurellosis in production animals, an international workshop held at Bali, Indonesia, 10–13 August 1992. Canberra: ACIAR Proceedings No. 43. pp. 105–107.

Pathology and pathogenesis

On post-mortem examination (

necropsy An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of death or to evaluate any di ...

), the most obvious gross lesion is subcutaneous oedema in the submandibular and pectoral (brisket) regions. Petechial haemorrhages are found subcutaneously and in the thoracic cavity. In addition, congestion and various degrees of consolidation of the lung may occur. Animals that die within 24–36 hours have only few petechial haemorrhages on the heart and generalised congestion of the lung, while in animals that die after 72 hours, petechial and

ecchymotic A bruise, also known as a contusion, is a type of hematoma of tissue, the most common cause being capillaries damaged by trauma, causing localized bleeding that extravasates into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Most bruises occur close ...

haemorrhages were more evident and lung consolidation is more extensive.De Alwis MCL, Jayasekera MU and Balasunderam P (1975) Pneumonic pasteurellosis in buffalo calves associated with Pasteurella multocida serotype 6:B. Ceylon Veterinary Journal 23: 58–60.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis on Bases of blood smear and Clinical findings.

Management

Sulphadimadine 100 ml orally and injection of

oxytetracycline Oxytetracycline is a broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic, the second of the group to be discovered. Oxytetracycline works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to produce essential proteins. Without these proteins, the bacteria cannot g ...

40 ml for 3 days continuously.

Epidemiology

Three factors affect the global distribution of HS: climatic conditions, husbandry practices and the species of animal.De Alwis MCL (1993) Sri Lanka. In: B. E. Patten, T. L. Spencer, R. B. Johnson, D. Hoffmann and L. Lehane, editors. Pasteurellosis in production animals, an international workshop held at Bali, Indonesia, 10–13 August 1992. Canberra: ACIAR Proceedings No. 43. pp. 243–245. For example, in 1981, Sri Lanka was a good example of different distribution patterns because it had a variety of agroclimatic regions and different husbandry practices. Consequently, Sri Lanka had distinct endemic and non-endemic areas for HS. The disease was almost non-existent where there was a predominance of hills. Here, the climatic conditions were mild and also temperate dairy breeds were reared. In contrast to this, in the warmer dry plains, where there were seasonal heavy rains and indigenous cattle, buffaloes and zebu cattle, the disease was endemic. Occasional sporadic outbreaks happened in areas with topography, climate and animals that were between these extremes. Generally, South Asia is the area of highest prevalence and incidence of HS. This is attributed to radical changes in weather between seasons, animal debilitation caused by seasonal scarcities of fodder and the pressures of the work that animals do, e.g. draught animals.De Alwis MCL (1999) Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 1–10. The disease also occurs, but to a lesser extent, in the Middle East and Africa. Predisposing conditions are not as clearly defined as in South Asia. In India from 1974–1986, HS was responsible for the highest mortality rate of infectious diseases in buffaloes and cattle, and was second in its morbidity rate in the same animals. When compared to

foot and mouth disease Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) or hoof-and-mouth disease (HMD) is an infectious and sometimes fatal viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including domestic and wild bovids. The virus causes a high fever lasting two to six days, followe ...

rinderpest Rinderpest (also cattle plague or steppe murrain) was an infectious viral disease of cattle, domestic buffalo, and many other species of even-toed ungulates, including gaurs, buffaloes, large antelope, deer, giraffes, wildebeests, and warthogs ...

anthrax Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacterium ''Bacillus anthracis''. It can occur in four forms: skin, lungs, intestinal, and injection. Symptom onset occurs between one day and more than two months after the infection is contracted. The sk ...

and black leg,Dutta J, Rathore BS, Mullick SG, Singh R and Sharma GC (1990) Epidemiological studies on occurrence of haemorrhagic septicaemia in India. Indian Vet J 67: 893–899. HS accounted for 58.7% of the deaths due to these five endemic diseases.Benkirane A and De Alwis MCL (2002) Haemorrhagic septicaemia, its significance, prevention and control in Asia. Vet Med (Praha) 47: 234–240. Hemorrhagic septicemia is the most important bacterial disease of cattle and buffaloes in Pakistan.Munir R, Akhtar S and Afzal MM (1994) Evaluation of three oil–adjuvant vaccines against Pasteurella multocida in buffalo calves. Revue Scientifique Technique Office International des Epizooties 13: 837–843. In Pakistan, it is a disease of great economic importance. In the Punjab province alone, the financial losses due to HS were estimated to be more than 2.17 billion Pakistani rupees (equivalent to 58 million USD) in 1996.Anonymous (1996) Economic analysis and survey planning: Epidemiology, Punjab, 1994. Pakistan directorate of planning and evaluation department of livestock and dairy development, Punjab.Imran M, Irshad M, Shahid MA and Ashraf M (2007) Studies on the carrier status of Pasteurella multocida in healthy cattle and buffalo in district Faisalabad. International Journal of Dairy Science 2: 398–400. According to farmers' opinions in a participatory disease surveillance (PDS) done in Karachi, HS is more important than foot and mouth disease (FMD) and this is due to the higher mortality rate and the greater economic impact of HS.Ali SN, Asif M, Rehman A, Jat LA, Ali Q, et al. (2006) Participatory Surveillance of Livestock Diseases in District Karachi–Pakistan. International Journal of Agriculture & Biology 8: 652–656.

References

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External links

Current status of Hemorrhagic septicemia worldwide
at OIE. WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health Information Database
Disease card
Bovine diseases