Hadrian

Hadrian (/ˈheɪdriən/; Latin: Publius Aelius Hadrianus Augustus; 24
January 76 – 10 July 138 AD) was
Roman emperor

Roman emperor from 117 to 138.[note
1] He was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus, probably at Italica, near
Santiponce

Santiponce (in modern-day Spain), into a Hispano-Roman family with
centuries-old roots in Hispania. His father was a maternal first
cousin of the emperor Trajan. Some years before Hadrian's accession,
he married Trajan's grand-niece, Vibia Sabina. Trajan's wife and
Empress, Pompeia Plotina, and his close friend and adviser Licinius
Sura, were well disposed towards Hadrian. When
Trajan

Trajan died, his widow
claimed that immediately before his death, he had nominated
Hadrian

Hadrian as
emperor.
Rome's military and Senate approved Hadrian's succession, but soon
after, four leading senators who had opposed Hadrian, or seemed to
threaten his succession, were unlawfully put to death; the senate held
Hadrian

Hadrian responsible for this, and never forgave him. He earned further
disapproval among the elite by abandoning Trajan's expansionist
policies and recent territorial gains in Mesopotamia, Assyria and
Armenia, and parts of Dacia.
Hadrian

Hadrian preferred to invest in the
development of stable, defensible borders, and the unification, under
his overall leadership, of the empire's disparate peoples. He is known
for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of
Britannia. Late in his reign he suppressed the
Bar Kokhba revolt

Bar Kokhba revolt in
Judaea; with this major exception, Hadrian's reign was generally
peaceful.
Hadrian

Hadrian energetically pursued his own Imperial ideals and personal
interests. He visited almost every province of the Empire, accompanied
by a probably vast Imperial retinue of specialists and administrators.
He encouraged military preparedness and discipline, and fostered,
designed or personally subsidised various civil and religious
institutions and building projects. In
Rome

Rome itself, he rebuilt or
completed the Pantheon, and constructed the vast Temple of Venus and
Roma. In Egypt, he may have rebuilt the
Serapeum

Serapeum of Alexandria. An
ardent admirer of Greece, he sought to make
Athens

Athens the cultural
capital of the Empire and ordered the construction of many opulent
temples there. His intense relationship with the Greek youth Antinous,
and the latter's untimely death, led to Hadrian's establishment of an
enduring and widespread popular cult.
Hadrian's last years were marred by chronic illness. He saw the bar
Kokhba revolt as the failure of his panhellenic ideal. His execution
of two more senators for their alleged plots against him provoked
further resentment. His marriage to
Vibia Sabina

Vibia Sabina had been unhappy, and
childless; in 138 he adopted
Antoninus Pius

Antoninus Pius and nominated him as a
successor, on the condition that Antoninus adopt
Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus

Lucius Verus as his own heirs.
Hadrian

Hadrian died the same year at Baiae,
and Antoninus had him deified, despite opposition from the Senate.
Thereafter, Roman histories present
Hadrian

Hadrian as a complex and difficult
character. British historian
Edward Gibbon

Edward Gibbon includes him among the
Empire's "Five good emperors", a "benevolent dictator"; Hadrian's own
senate found him remote and authoritarian. He has been described as
enigmatic and contradictory, with a capacity for both great personal
generosity and extreme cruelty, and driven by insatiable curiosity,
self-conceit, and above all, ambition.[1] Modern interest was revived
largely thanks to Marguerite Yourcenar's novel Mémoires d'Hadrien
(1951).
Contents
1 Early life
2 Public service
2.1 Relationship with
Trajan

Trajan and his family
2.2 Succession
3 Emperor (117)
3.1 Securing power
4 Travels
4.1 Britannia and the West (122)
4.2 Africa, Parthia and Anatolia;
Antinous

Antinous (123–124)
4.3 Greece (124–125)
4.4 Return to Italy and trip to Africa (126–128)
4.5 Greece, Asia, and Egypt (128–130); Antinous's death
4.6 Greece and the East (130–132)
4.7 Second Roman–Jewish War (132–136)
5 Final years
5.1 Arranging the succession
5.2 Death
6 Military
7 Legal and social
8 Religious
8.1 Antinous
8.2 Christians
9 Personal and cultural interests
9.1 Poem by Hadrian
10 Appraisals
11 Sources and historiography
12 Nerva–Antonine family tree
13 Notes
14 See Also
15 Citations
16 References
16.1 Primary sources
16.2 Secondary sources
17 Further reading
18 External links
Early life[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus in either
Italica

Italica (near
modern Seville) in the province of
Hispania

Hispania Baetica[2][3] or less
probably, in Rome,[4] to a well-established Roman family with
centuries-old roots in Italica. His biography in the Historia Augusta
states that he was born in
Rome

Rome on 24 January 76 to an ethnically
Hispanic family with paternal links to Italy; but this may have been a
complimentary fiction coined to make
Hadrian

Hadrian appear a natural-born
Roman, rather than a provincial. Both
Hadrian

Hadrian and his predecessor
Trajan

Trajan were – in the words of Aurelius Victor –
"aliens", people "from the outside" (advenae).[5]
Hadrian's father was Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, who as a senator
of praetorian rank would have spent much of his time in Rome.[6]
Hadrian's known paternal ancestry can be partly linked to a family
from Hadria (modern Atri), an ancient town in Picenum, Italy. This
family had settled in
Italica

Italica soon after its founding by Scipio
Africanus several centuries before Hadrian's birth. Hadrian's father,
Afer, and his paternal cousin, the Emperor Trajan, were both born and
raised in Hispania. Hadrian's mother was Domitia Paulina, daughter of
a distinguished Hispano-Roman senatorial family from Gades
(Cádiz).[7] Hadrian's elder sister, his only sibling, was Aelia
Domitia Paulina, married to Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus, who was
consul three times and fathered Hadrian's niece, Julia Serviana
Paulina. Hadrian's great-nephew, Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who
would become consul in 118, was from Barcino (Barcelona).
In 86, when
Hadrian

Hadrian was ten years old, his parents died, and he became
a ward of both
Trajan

Trajan and
Publius Acilius Attianus (who was later
Trajan's Praetorian prefect).[7]
Hadrian

Hadrian was physically active, and
enjoyed hunting; when he was 14,
Trajan

Trajan called him to
Rome

Rome and
arranged his further education in subjects appropriate to a young
Roman aristocrat.
Hadrian

Hadrian proved so fond of Greek literature that he
was nicknamed Graeculus ("Greekling").
Public service[edit]
Hadrian's first official post in
Rome

Rome was as a judge at the
Inheritance court, one among many vigintivirate offices at the lowest
level of the cursus honorum ("course of honours") that could lead to
higher office and a senatorial career. He then served as a military
tribune, first with the Legio II Adiutrix in 95, then with the
Legio V Macedonica. During Hadrian's second stint as tribune, the
frail and aged reigning emperor
Nerva

Nerva adopted
Trajan

Trajan as his heir;
Hadrian

Hadrian was dispatched to give
Trajan

Trajan the news— or most probably was
one of many emissaries charged with this same commission.[8] Then he
was transferred to
Legio XXII Primigenia

Legio XXII Primigenia and a third tribunate.[9]
Hadrian's three tribunates gave him some career advantage. Most scions
of the older senatorial families might serve one, or at most two
military tribunates as a prerequisite to higher office.[10][11] When
Nerva

Nerva died in 98,
Hadrian

Hadrian is said to have hastened to Trajan, to
inform him ahead of the official envoy sent by the governor, Hadrian's
brother-in-law and rival Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus.[12]
In 101,
Hadrian

Hadrian was back in Rome; he was elected quaestor, then
quaestor imperatoris Traiani, liaison officer between Emperor and the
assembled Senate, to whom he read the Emperor's communiqués and
speeches – which he possibly composed on the emperor's behalf.
In his role as imperial ghostwriter,
Hadrian

Hadrian took the place of the
recently deceased
Licinius

Licinius Sura, Trajan's all-powerful friend and
kingmaker.[13] His next post was as ab actis senatus, keeping the
Senate's records.[14] During the First Dacian War,
Hadrian

Hadrian took the
field as a member of Trajan's personal entourage, but was excused from
his military post to take office in
Rome

Rome as
Tribune

Tribune of the Plebs, in
105. After the war, he was probably elected praetor.[15] During the
Second Dacian War,
Hadrian

Hadrian was in Trajan's personal service again, but
was released to serve as legate of Legio I Minervia, then as governor
of Lower Pannonia in 107, tasked with "holding back the
Sarmatians".[16][17]
Now in his mid-thirties,
Hadrian

Hadrian travelled to Greece; he was granted
Athenian citizenship and was appointed eponymous archon of
Athens

Athens for
a brief time (in 112).[18] The Athenians awarded him a statue with an
inscription in the
Theater of Dionysus
.jpg/580px-Athen_Akropolis_(18512008726).jpg)
Theater of Dionysus ( IG II2 3286) offering a
detailed account of his cursus honorum thus far.[19][20] Thereafter no
more is heard of him until Trajan's Parthian War. It is possible that
he remained in Greece until his recall to the imperial retinue,[16]
when he joined Trajan's expedition against Parthia as a legate.[21]
When the governor of Syria was sent to deal with renewed troubles in
Dacia,
Hadrian

Hadrian was appointed his replacement, with independent
command.[22]
Trajan

Trajan became seriously ill, and took ship for Rome,
while
Hadrian

Hadrian remained in Syria, de facto general commander of the
Eastern Roman army.[23]
Trajan

Trajan got as far as the coastal city of
Selinus, in Cilicia, and died there, on 8 August; he would be
regarded as one of Rome's most admired, popular and best emperors.
Relationship with
Trajan

Trajan and his family[edit]
Around the time of his quaestorship, in 100 or 101,
Hadrian

Hadrian had
married Trajan's twelve-year-old grandniece, Vibia Sabina. Trajan
himself seems to have been less than enthusiastic about the marriage,
and with good reason, as the couple's relationship would prove to be
scandalously poor.[24] The marriage might have been arranged by
Trajan's empress, Plotina. This highly cultured, influential woman
shared many of Hadrian's values and interests, including the idea of
the
Roman Empire

Roman Empire as a commonwealth with an underlying Hellenic
culture.[25] If
Hadrian

Hadrian were to be appointed Trajan's successor,
Plotina and her extended family could retain their social profile and
political influence after Trajan's death.[26]
Hadrian

Hadrian could also count
on the support of his mother-in-law, Salonina Matidia, who was
daughter of Trajan's beloved sister Ulpia Marciana.[27][28] When Ulpia
Marciana died, in 112,
Trajan

Trajan had her deified, and made Salonina
Matidia an Augusta.[29]
A relief scene on
Trajan's Column
_September_2015-1.jpg/440px-Trajan_column_(Rome)_September_2015-1.jpg)
Trajan's Column in Rome, 2nd-century monument
attributed to
Apollodorus of Damascus

Apollodorus of Damascus (monochrome graphics by Conrad
Cichorius), showing a
Roman legion

Roman legion storming a Dacian fortress during
Trajan's Dacian Wars
Hadrian's personal relationship with
Trajan

Trajan was complex, and may have
been difficult.
Hadrian

Hadrian seems to have sought influence over Trajan, or
Trajan's decisions, through cultivation of the latter's boy
favourites; this gave rise to some unexplained quarrel, around the
time of Hadrian's marriage to Sabina.[30][31] Late in Trajan's reign,
Hadrian

Hadrian failed to achieve a senior consulship, being only suffect
consul for 108;[32] this gave him parity of status with other members
of the senatorial nobility;[33]but no particular distinction befitting
an heir designate.[34] Had
Trajan

Trajan wished it, he could have promoted
his protege to patrician rank and its privileges, which included
opportunities for a fast track to consulship without prior experience
as tribune; but he chose not to.[35]
Hadrian

Hadrian was made
Tribune

Tribune of the
Plebs somewhat younger than was customary, and was promoted to
praetorian rank; but he was consistently excluded from Trajan's
innermost circle of advisers.[36] The
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta describes
Trajan's gift to
Hadrian

Hadrian of a diamond ring that
Trajan

Trajan himself had
received from Nerva, which "encouraged [Hadrian's] hopes of succeeding
to the throne".[37][38] While
Trajan

Trajan actively promoted Hadrian's
advancement, he did so with caution.[39]
Bust of Emperor
Trajan

Trajan wearing the civic crown and the aegis, symbol
of divine power and world domination, Glyptothek, Munich
Succession[edit]
Failure to nominate an heir could invite chaotic, destructive wresting
of power by a succession of competing claimants - a civil war. Too
early a nomination could be seen as an abdication, and reduce the
chance for an orderly transmission of power.[40] As
Trajan

Trajan lay dying,
nursed by his wife, Plotina, and closely watched by Prefect Attianus,
he could have lawfully adopted
Hadrian

Hadrian as heir, by means of a simple
deathbed wish, expressed before witnesses;[41] but when an adoption
document was eventually presented, it was signed not by
Trajan

Trajan but by
Plotina, and was dated the day after Trajan's death.[42] That Hadrian
was still in Syria was a further irregularity, as Roman adoption law
required the presence of both parties at the adoption ceremony.
Rumours, doubts, and speculation attended Hadrian's adoption and
succession. It has been suggested that Trajan's young manservant
Phaedimus, who died very soon after Trajan, was killed (or killed
himself) rather than face awkward questions.[43] Ancient sources are
divided on the legitimacy of Hadrian's adoption:
Dio Cassius saw it as
bogus and the
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta writer as genuine.[44] An aureus minted
early in Hadrian's reign represents the official position; it presents
Hadrian

Hadrian as Trajan's "Caesar" (Trajan's heir designate).[45]
Emperor (117)[edit]
Securing power[edit]
The
Roman Empire

Roman Empire in 125, under the rule of Hadrian
Castel Sant'Angelo, the ancient
Hadrian

Hadrian Mausoleum
This famous statue of
Hadrian

Hadrian in Greek dress was revealed in 2008 to
have been forged in the
Victorian era

Victorian era by cobbling together a head of
Hadrian

Hadrian and an unknown body. For years, the statue had been used by
historians as proof of Hadrian's love of Hellenic culture.[46]
According to the Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian informed the Senate of his
accession in a letter as a fait accompli, explaining that "the
unseemly haste of the troops in acclaiming him emperor was due to the
belief that the state could not be without an emperor".[47] The new
emperor rewarded the legions' loyalty with the customary bonus, and
the Senate endorsed the acclamation. Various public ceremonies were
organized on Hadrian's behalf, celebrating his "divine election" by
all the gods, whose community now included Trajan, deified at
Hadrian's request.[48]
Statue of
Hadrian

Hadrian unearthed at Tel Shalem commemorating Roman military
victory over Bar Kochba, displayed at the Israel Museum
Hadrian

Hadrian remained in the east for a while, suppressing the Jewish
revolt that had broken out under Trajan. He relieved Judea's governor,
the outstanding Moorish general Lusius Quietus, of his personal guard
of Moorish auxiliaries;[49][50] then he moved on to quell disturbances
along the
Danube

Danube frontier. In Rome, Hadrian's former guardian and
current Praetorian Prefect, Attianus, claimed to have uncovered a
conspiracy involving four leading senators, who included Lusius
Quietus.[51] There was no public trial for the four – they were
tried in absentia, hunted down and killed.[51]
Hadrian

Hadrian claimed that
Attianus had acted on his own initiative, and rewarded him with
senatorial status and consular rank; then pensioned him off, no later
than 120.[52]
Hadrian

Hadrian assured the senate that henceforth their ancient
right to prosecute and judge their own would be respected.
The reasons for these four executions remain obscure. Official
recognition of
Hadrian

Hadrian as legitimate heir may have come too late to
dissuade other potential claimants.[53] Hadrian's greatest rivals were
Trajan's closest friends, the most experienced and senior members of
the imperial council;[54] any of them might have been a legitimate
competitor for the imperial office (capaces imperii);[55] and any of
them might have supported Trajan's expansionist policies, which
Hadrian

Hadrian intended to change.[56] One of their number was Aulus
Cornelius Palma who as a former conqueror of Arabia Nabatea would have
retained a stake in the East.[57] The
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta describes Palma
and a third executed senator, Lucius Publilius Celsus (consul for the
second time in 113), as Hadrian's personal enemies, who had spoken in
public against him.[58] The fourth was Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, an
ex-consul, intellectual, friend of
Pliny the Younger

Pliny the Younger and (briefly)
Governor of
Dacia

Dacia at the start of Hadrian's reign. He was probably
Hadrian's chief rival for the throne; a senator of highest rank,
breeding, and connections; according to the Historia Augusta, Hadrian
had considered making Nigrinus his heir apparent, before deciding to
get rid of him.[59][60]
A denarius of
Hadrian

Hadrian issued in 119 AD for his third consulship
Soon after, in 125,
Hadrian

Hadrian appointed
Marcius Turbo as his Praetorian
Prefect.[61] Turbo was his close friend, a leading figure of the
equestrian order, a senior court judge and aprocurator.[62][63] As
Hadrian

Hadrian also forbade equestrians to try cases against senators,[64]
the Senate retained full legal authority over its members; it also
remained the highest court of appeal, and formal appeals to the
emperor regarding its decisions were forbidden.[65] If this was an
attempt to repair the damage done by Attianus, with or without
Hadrian's full knowledge, it was not enough; Hadrian's reputation and
relationship with his Senate were iredeemably soured, for the rest of
his reign.[66] Some sources describe Hadrian's occasional recourse to
a network of informers, the frumentarii[67] to discretely investigate
persons of high social standing, including senators and his close
friends.[68]
Travels[edit]
Statue of
Hadrian

Hadrian in military garb, wearing the civic crown and muscle
cuirass, from Antalya, Turkey
Hadrian

Hadrian was to spend more than half his reign outside Italy. Whereas
previous emperors had, for the most part, relied on the reports of
their imperial representatives around the Empire,
Hadrian

Hadrian wished to
see things for himself. Previous emperors had often left
Rome

Rome for long
periods, but mostly to go to war, returning once the conflict was
settled. Hadrian's near-incessant travels may represent a calculated
break with traditions and attitudes in which the empire was a purely
Roman hegemony.
Hadrian

Hadrian sought to include provincials in a
commonwealth of civilized peoples and a common Hellenic culture under
Roman supervision.[69] He supported the creation of provincial towns
(municipia), semi-autonomous urban communities with their own customs
and laws, rather than the imposition of new Roman colonies with Roman
constitutions.[70]
A cosmopolitan, ecumenical intent is evident in coin issues of
Hadrian's later reign, showing the emperor "raising up" the
personifications of various provinces.[71]
Aelius Aristides

Aelius Aristides would
later write that
Hadrian

Hadrian "extended over his subjects a protecting
hand, raising them as one helps fallen men on their feet".[72]. All
this did not go well with Roman traditionalists. The self-indulgent
emperor
Nero

Nero had enjoyed a prolonged and peaceful tour of Greece, and
had been criticised by the Roman elite for abandoning his fundamental
responsibilities as emperor. In the eastern provinces, and to some
extent in the west,
Nero

Nero had enjoyed popular support; claims of his
imminent return or rebirth emerged almost immediately after his death.
Hadrian

Hadrian may have consciously exploited these positive, popular
connections during his own travels.[73] In the Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian is described as "a little too much Greek", too cosmopolitan
for a Roman emperor.[74]
Britannia and the West (122)[edit]
Hadrian's Wall

Hadrian's Wall (Vallum Hadriani), a fortification in Northern England
(viewed from Vercovicium).
Hadrian's Gate, in Antalya, southern Turkey was built to honour
Hadrian

Hadrian who visited the city in 130.
Prior to Hadrian's arrival in Britannia, the province had suffered a
major rebellion, from 119 to 121.[75] Inscriptions tell of an
expeditio Britannica that involved major troop movements, including
the dispatch of a detachment (vexillatio), comprising some 3,000
soldiers. Fronto writes about military losses in Britannia at the
time.[76] Coin legends of 119-120 attest that Pompeius Falco was sent
to restore order. In 122
Hadrian

Hadrian initiated the construction of a wall,
"to separate Romans from barbarians".[77] This deterred attacks on
Roman territory at a lower cost than a massed border army,[78] and
controlled cross-border trade and immigration.[79] A shrine was
erected in York to Brittania as the divine personification of Britain;
Coins were struck, bearing her image, identified as BRITANNIA.[80] By
the end of 122,
Hadrian

Hadrian had concluded his visit to Britannia. He never
saw the finished wall that bears his name.
Hadrian

Hadrian appears to have continued through southern Gaul. At Nemausus,
he may have overseen the building of a basilica dedicated to his
patroness Plotina, who had recently died in
Rome

Rome and had been deified
at Hadrian's request.[81] At around this time,
Hadrian

Hadrian dismissed his
secretary ab epistulis,[82] the historian Suetonius, for "excessive
familiarity" towards the empress.[83] Marcius Turbo's colleague as
Praetorian Prefect,
Gaius Septicius Clarus was dismissed for the same
alleged reason, perhaps a pretext to remove him from office.[84]
Hadrian

Hadrian spent the winter of 122/123 at Tarraco, in Spain, where he
restored the Temple of Augustus.[85]
Africa, Parthia and Anatolia;
Antinous

Antinous (123–124)[edit]
Statue of
Antinous

Antinous (Delphi), polychrome Parian marble, made during the
reign of Hadrian
In 123,
Hadrian

Hadrian crossed the Mediterranean to Mauretania, where he
personally led a minor campaign against local rebels.[86] The visit
was cut short by reports of war preparations by Parthia; Hadrian
quickly headed eastwards. At some point, he visited Cyrene, where he
personally funded the training of young men from well-bred families
for the Roman military. Cyrene had benefited earlier (in 119) from his
restoration of public buildings destroyed during the earlier Jewish
revolt.[87][88]
When
Hadrian

Hadrian arrived on the Euphrates, he personally negotiated a
settlement with the Parthian King Osroes I, inspected the Roman
defences, then set off westwards, along the Black Sea coast.[89] He
probably wintered in Nicomedia, the main city of Bithynia. Nicomedia
had been hit by an earthquake only shortly before his stay; Hadrian
provided funds for its rebuilding, and was acclaimed as restorer of
the province.[90]
It is possible that
Hadrian

Hadrian visited Claudiopolis and saw the beautiful
Antinous, a young man of humble birth who became Hadrian's beloved.
Literary and epigraphic sources say nothing on when or where they met;
depictions of
Antinous

Antinous show him aged 20 or so, shortly before his
death in 130. In 123 he would most likely have been a youth of 13 or
14.[90] It is also possible that
Antinous

Antinous was sent to
Rome

Rome to be
trained as a page to serve the emperor and only gradually rose to the
status of imperial favourite.[91] The actual history of their
relationship is mostly unknown.[92]
With or without Antinous,
Hadrian

Hadrian travelled through Anatolia. Various
traditions suggest his presence at particular locations, and allege
his foundation of a city within Mysia, Hadrianutherae, after a
successful boar hunt. At about this time, plans to complete the Temple
of
Zeus

Zeus in Cyzicus, begun by the kings of Pergamon, were put into
practice. The temple received a colossal statue of Hadrian. Cyzicus,
Pergamon, Smyrna,
Ephesus

Ephesus and
Sardes
.jpg/440px-The_Bath-Gymnasium_complex_at_Sardis,_late_2nd_-_early_3rd_century_AD,_Sardis,_Turkey_(17098680002).jpg)
Sardes were promoted as regional centres
for the Imperial cult (neocoros)[93]
Greece (124–125)[edit]
Temple of
Zeus

Zeus in Athens
The Pantheon in
Rome

Rome was rebuilt by Hadrian.
Hadrian

Hadrian arrived in Greece during the autumn of 124, and participated
in the Eleusinian Mysteries. He had a particular commitment to Athens,
which had previously granted him citizenship and an archonate; at the
Athenians' request, he revised their constitution – among other
things, he added a new phyle (tribe), which was named after him.[94]
Hadrian

Hadrian combined active, hands-on interventions with cautious
restraint. He refused to intervene in a local dispute between
producers of olive oil and the Athenian Assembly and Council, who had
imposed production quotas on oil producers;[95] yet he granted an
imperial subsidy for the Athenian grain supply.[96]
Hadrian

Hadrian created
two foundations, to fund Athens' public games, festivals and
competitions if no citizen proved wealthy or willing enough to sponsor
them as a
Gymnasiarch or Agonothetes.[97] Generally
Hadrian

Hadrian preferred
that Greek notables, including priests of the Imperial cult, focus on
more durable provisions, such as aqueducts and public fountains
(nymphaea).[98]
Athens

Athens was given two such fountains; another was given
to Argos.[99]
During the winter he toured the Peloponnese. His exact route is
uncertain, but
Pausanias describes temples built by Hadrian, and his
statue – in heroic nudity – erected by the grateful
citizens of Epidaurus[100] in thanks to their "restorer".
Antinous

Antinous and
Hadrian

Hadrian may have already been lovers at this time;
Hadrian

Hadrian showed
particular generosity to Mantinea, which shared ancient, mythic,
politically useful links with Antinous' home at Bithynia. He restored
Mantinea's Temple of
Poseidon

Poseidon Hippios;[101][102] and according to
Pausanias, restored the city's original, classical name. It had been
renamed Antigoneia since Hellenistic times, after the Macedonian King
Antigonus III Doson.
Hadrian

Hadrian also rebuilt the ancient shrines of Abae
and Megara, and the Heraion of Argos.[103][104]
During his tour of the Peloponnese,
Hadrian

Hadrian persuaded the Spartan
grandee Eurycles Herculanus – leader of the Euryclid family
that had ruled
Sparta

Sparta since Augustus' day – to enter the
Senate, alongside the Athenian grandee Herodes Atticus the Elder. The
two aristocrats would be the first from "Old Greece" to enter the
Roman Senate, as representatives of the two "great powers" of the
Classical Age.[105] This was an important step in overcoming Greek
notables' reluctance to take part in Roman political life.[106] In
March 125,
Hadrian

Hadrian presided at the Athenian festival of Dionysia,
wearing Athenian dress. The Temple of Olympian
Zeus

Zeus had been under
construction for more than five centuries;
Hadrian

Hadrian committed the vast
resources at his command to ensure that the job would be finished. He
also organised the planning and construction of a particularly
challenging and ambitious aqueduct to bring water to the Athenian
agora.[107]
Return to Italy and trip to Africa (126–128)[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian in armour, wearing the gorgoneion; marble, Roman artwork, c.
127–128 AD, from Heraklion, Crete, now in the Louvre, Paris
On his return to Italy,
Hadrian

Hadrian made a detour to Sicily. Coins
celebrate him as the restorer of the island.[108] Back in Rome, he saw
the rebuilt Pantheon, and his completed villa at nearby Tibur, among
the Sabine Hills. In early March 127
Hadrian

Hadrian set off on a tour of
Italy; his route has been reconstructed through the evidence of his
gifts and donations.[108] He restored the shrine of
Cupra in Cupra
Maritima, and improved the drainage of the Fucine lake. Less welcome
than such largesse was his decision in 127 to divide Italy into four
regions under imperial legates with consular rank, acting as
governors. They were given jurisdiction over all of Italy, excluding
Rome

Rome itself, therefore shifting Italian cases from the courts of
Rome.[109] Having Italy effectively reduced to the status of a group
of mere provinces did not go down well with the Roman Senate;[110] and
the innovation did not long outlive Hadrian's reign.[108]
Hadrian

Hadrian fell ill around this time; whatever the nature of his illness,
it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of 128 to visit
Africa. His arrival coincided with the good omen of rain, which ended
a drought. Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer, he
found time to inspect the troops; his speech to them survives.[111]
Hadrian

Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128 but his stay was brief,
as he set off on another tour that would last three years.[112]
Greece, Asia, and Egypt (128–130); Antinous's death[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian and
Antinous

Antinous – busts in the British Museum
Ruins of the Arch of
Hadrian

Hadrian in Athens, Greece, near the Athenian
Acropolis
In September 128,
Hadrian

Hadrian attended the Eleusinian mysteries again.
This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on
Athens

Athens and
Sparta – the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece.
Hadrian

Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival around
the
Amphictyonic League

Amphictyonic League based in Delphi, but by now he had decided on
something far grander. His new
Panhellenion was going to be a council
that would bring Greek cities together. Having set in motion the
preparations – deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was
genuine would take time –
Hadrian

Hadrian set off for Ephesus.[113]
From Greece,
Hadrian

Hadrian proceeded by way of Asia to Egypt, probably
conveyed across the Aegean with his entourage by an Ephesian merchant,
Lucius Erastus.
Hadrian

Hadrian later sent a letter to the Council of Ephesus,
supporting Erastus as a worthy candidate for town councillor and
offering to pay the requisite fee.[114]
Hadrian

Hadrian opened his stay in Egypt by restoring Pompey the Great's tomb
at Pelusium,[115] offering sacrifice to him as a hero and composing an
epigraph for the tomb. As Pompey was universally acknowledged as
responsible for establishing Rome's power in the east, this
restoration was probably linked to a need to reaffirm Roman Eastern
hegemony, following social unrest there during Trajan's late
reign.[116]
Hadrian

Hadrian and
Antinous

Antinous held a lion hunt in the Libyan
desert; a poem on the subject by the Greek Pankrates is the earliest
evidence that they travelled together.[117]
In October 130, while
Hadrian

Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the
Nile,
Antinous

Antinous drowned. The exact circumstances surrounding his death
are unknown, and accident, suicide, murder and religious sacrifice
have all been postulated.
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta offers the following
account:
During a journey on the
Nile

Nile he lost Antinous, his favourite, and for
this youth he wept like a woman. Concerning this incident there are
varying rumours; for some claim that he had devoted himself to death
for Hadrian, and others – what both his beauty and Hadrian's
sensuality suggest. But however this may be, the Greeks deified him at
Hadrian's request, and declared that oracles were given through his
agency, but these, it is commonly asserted, were composed by Hadrian
himself.[118]
Greece and the East (130–132)[edit]
Statue of
Hadrian

Hadrian as pontifex maximus, dated 130–140 AD, from Rome,
Palazzo Nuovo, Capitoline Museums
Hadrian's movements after the founding of
Antinopolis

Antinopolis on 30 October
130 are uncertain. Whether or not he returned to Rome, he travelled in
the East during 130/131, to organise and inaugurate his new
Panhellenion, which was to be focussed on the Athenian Temple to
Olympian Zeus. Successful applications for membership involved
mythologised or fabricated claims to Greek origins, and affirmations
of loyalty to Imperial Rome, to satisfy Hadrian's personal, idealised
notions of Hellenism.[119][120]
Hadrian

Hadrian saw himself as protector of
Greek culture and the "liberties" of Greece – in this case,
urban self-government. It allowed
Hadrian

Hadrian to appear as the fictive
heir to Pericles, who supposedly had convened a previous Panhellenic
Congress – such a Congress is mentioned only in Pericles'
biography by Plutarch, who respected Rome's Imperial order.[121]
Epigraphical evidence suggests that the prospect of applying to the
Panhellenion held little attraction to the wealthier, Hellenised
cities of Asia Minor, which were jealous of Athenian and European
Greek preeminence within Hadrian's scheme.[122] Hadrian's notion of
Hellenism was narrow and deliberately archaising; he defined
"Greekness" in terms of classical roots, rather than a broader,
Hellenistic culture.[123] The German sociologist
Georg Simmel

Georg Simmel remarked
that the
Panhellenion was based on "games, commemorations,
preservation of an ideal, an entirely non-political Hellenism".[124]
Colossal portrait bust of the emperor
Hadrian

Hadrian with a wreath of oak
leaves (AD 117–138); pentelic marble, found in Athens, National
Archaeological Museum, Athens
Hadrian

Hadrian bestowed honorific titles on many regional centres.[125]
Palmyra

Palmyra received a state visit and was given the civic name Hadriana
Palmyra.[126]
Hadrian

Hadrian also bestowed honours on various Palmyrene
magnates, among them one Soados, who had done much to protect
Palmyrene trade between the
Roman Empire

Roman Empire and Parthia.[127]
Hadrian

Hadrian had spent the winter of 131–32 in Athens, where he dedicated
the now-completed Temple of Olympian Zeus,[128] At some time in 132,
he headed East, to Judaea.
Second Roman–Jewish War (132–136)[edit]
Main article: Bar Kokhba revolt
Coinage minted to mark Hadrian's visit to Judea
Porphyry statue of
Hadrian

Hadrian discovered in Caesarea, Israel
In
Roman Judaea

Roman Judaea
Hadrian

Hadrian visited Jerusalem, which was still ruinous
after the
First Roman–Jewish War

First Roman–Jewish War of 66–73. He may have planned to
rebuild Jerusalem as a Roman colony – as
Vespasian

Vespasian had done
with Caesarea Maritima – with various honorific and fiscal
privileges. The non-Roman population would have no obligation to
participate in Roman religious rituals, but were expected to support
the Roman imperial order; this is attested in Caesarea, where some
Jews served in the Roman army during both the 66 and 132
rebellions.[129] It has been speculated that
Hadrian

Hadrian intended to
assimilate the Jewish Temple to the traditional Roman civic-religious
Imperial cult; such assimilations had long been commonplace practise
in Greece and in other provinces, and on the whole, had been
successful.[130][131] The neighbouring Samaritans had already
integrated their religious rites with Hellenistic ones.[132] Strict
Jewish monotheism proved more resistant to Imperial cajoling, and then
to Imperial demands.[133] A massive anti-Hellenistic and anti-Roman
Jewish uprising broke out, led by Simon bar Kokhba. The Roman governor
Tineius (Tynius) Rufus asked for an army to crush the resistance; bar
Kokhba punished any Jew who refused to join his ranks.[134] According
to
Justin Martyr

Justin Martyr and Eusebius, that had to do mostly with Christian
converts, who opposed bar Kokhba's messianic claims.[135]
A tradition based on the
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta suggests that the revolt was
spurred by Hadrian's abolition of circumcision (brit milah);[136]
which as a Hellenist he viewed as mutilation.[137] The scholar Peter
Schäfer maintains that there is no evidence for this claim, given the
notoriously problematical nature of the
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta as a source,
the "tomfoolery" shown by the writer in the relevant passage, and the
fact that contemporary Roman legislation on "genital mutilation" seems
to address the general issue of castration of slaves by their
masters.[138][139][140] Other issues could have contributed to the
outbreak; a heavy-handed, culturally insensitive Roman administration;
tensions between the landless poor and incoming Roman colonists
privileged with land-grants; and a strong undercurrent of messianism,
predicated on Jeremiah's prophecy that the Temple would be rebuilt
seventy years after its destruction, as the First Temple had been
after the Babylonian exile.[141]
Relief

Relief from an honorary monument of
Hadrian

Hadrian (detail), showing the
emperor being greeted by the goddess Roma and the Genii of the Senate
and the Roman People; marble, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD,
Capitoline Museums, Vatican City
The Romans were overwhelmed by the organised ferocity of the
uprising.[142]
Hadrian

Hadrian called his general
Sextus Julius Severus from
Britain, and brought troops in from as far as the Danube. Roman losses
were heavy; an entire legion or its numeric equivalent of around
4,000.[143] Hadrian's report on the war to the
Roman Senate

Roman Senate omitted
the customary salutation, "If you and your children are in health, it
is well; I and the legions are in health."[144] The rebellion was
quashed by 135. According to Cassius Dio, Roman war operations in
Judea left some 580,000 Jews dead, and 50 fortified towns and 985
villages razed. An unknown proportion of the population was enslaved.
Beitar, a fortified city 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) southwest of
Jerusalem, fell after a three and a half year siege. The extent of
punitive measures against the Jewish population remains a matter of
debate.[145]
Hadrian

Hadrian erased the province's name from the Roman map, renaming it
Syria Palaestina. He renamed Jerusalem
Aelia Capitolina

Aelia Capitolina after himself
and Jupiter Capitolinus, and had it rebuilt in Greek style. According
to Epiphanius,
Hadrian

Hadrian appointed Aquila from Sinope in Pontus as
"overseer of the work of building the city", since he was related to
him by marriage.[146]
Hadrian

Hadrian is said to have placed the city's main
Forum at the junction of the main
Cardo

Cardo and Decumanus Maximus, now the
location for the (smaller) Muristan. After the suppression of the
Jewish revolt,
Hadrian

Hadrian provided the Samaritans with a temple,
dedicated to
Zeus

Zeus Hypsistos ("Highest Zeus")[147] on Mount
Gerizim.[148] The bloody repression of the revolt ended Jewish
political independence from the Roman Imperial order.[149]
Inscriptions make it clear that in 133
Hadrian

Hadrian took to the field with
his armies, against the rebels. He then returned to Rome, probably in
that year and almost certainly – judging from
inscriptions – via Illyricum.[150]
Final years[edit]
Bronze head of
Hadrian

Hadrian found in the
River Thames

River Thames in London. Now in the
British Museum.
Imperial group as Mars and Venus; the male figure is a portrait of
Hadrian, the female figure was reworked into a portrait of Annia
Lucilla

Lucilla (?); marble, Roman artwork, c. 120–140 AD, reworked c.
170–175 AD.
Hadrian

Hadrian spent the final years of his life at Rome. In 134, he took an
Imperial salutation for the end of the Second Jewish War (which was
not actually concluded until the following year). Commemorations and
achievement awards were kept to a minimum, as
Hadrian

Hadrian came to see the
war "as a cruel and sudden disappointment to his aspirations" towards
a cosmopolitan empire.[151]
The Empress Sabina died, probably in 136, after an unhappy marriage
with which
Hadrian

Hadrian had coped as a political necessity. The Historia
Augusta biography states that
Hadrian

Hadrian himself declared that his wife's
"ill-temper and irritability" would be reason enough for a divorce,
were he a private citizen.[152] That gave credence, after Sabina's
death, to the common belief that
Hadrian

Hadrian had her poisoned.[153] In
keeping with well-established Imperial propriety, Sabina – who had
been made an Augusta sometime around 128[154] – was deified not long
after her death.[155]
Arranging the succession[edit]
Hadrian's marriage to Sabina had been childless. Suffering from poor
health,
Hadrian

Hadrian turned to the problem of the succession. In 136 he
adopted one of the ordinary consuls of that year, Lucius Ceionius
Commodus, who as an emperor-in waiting took the name Lucius Aelius
Caesar. He was the son-in-law of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, one of the
"four consulars" executed in 118, but was himself in delicate health,
apparently with a reputation more "of a voluptuous, well educated
great lord than that of a leader".[156] Various modern attempts have
been made to explain Hadrian's choice:
Jerome Carcopino

Jerome Carcopino proposes that
Aelius was Hadrian's natural son.[157] It has also been speculated
that his adoption was Hadrian's belated attempt to reconcile with one
of the most important of the four senatorial families whose leading
members had been executed soon after Hadrian's succession.[72] Aelius
acquitted himself honourably as joint governor of Pannonia Superior
and Pannonia Inferior;[158] he held a further consulship in 137, but
died on 1 January 138.[159]
Hadrian

Hadrian next adopted
Titus

Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus
(the future emperor Antoninus Pius), who had served
Hadrian

Hadrian as one of
the five imperial legates of Italy, and as proconsul of Asia. In the
interests of dynastic stability,
Hadrian

Hadrian required that Antoninus adopt
both Lucius Ceionius
Commodus

Commodus (son of the deceased Aelius Caesar) and
Marcus Annius Verus (grandson of an influential senator of the same
name who had been Hadrian's close friend; Annius was already betrothed
to Aelius Caesar's daughter Ceionia Fabia;[160][161] It may not have
been Hadrian, but rather Antoninus Pius – Annius Verus's
uncle – who supported Annius Verus' advancement; the latter's
divorce of
Ceionia Fabia and subsequent marriage to Antoninus'
daughter Annia Faustina points in the same direction. When he
eventually became Emperor,
Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius would co-opt Ceionius
Commodus

Commodus as his co-Emperor, under the name of Lucius Verus, on his own
initiative.[160]
Hadrian's last few years were marked by conflict and unhappiness. His
adoption of Aelius Caesar proved unpopular, not least with Hadrian's
brother-in-law
Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus and Servianus's grandson
Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator. Servianus, though now far too old,
had stood in the line of succession at the beginning of Hadrian's
reign; Fuscus is said to have had designs on the imperial power for
himself. In 137 he may have attempted a coup in which his grandfather
was implicated;
Hadrian

Hadrian ordered that both be put to death.[162]
Servianus is reported to have prayed before his execution that Hadrian
would "long for death but be unable to die".[163] During his final,
protracted illness,
Hadrian

Hadrian was prevented from suicide on several
occasions.[164]
Death[edit]
Posthumous portrait of Hadrian; bronze, Roman artwork, c. 140 AD,
perhaps from Roman Egypt, Louvre, Paris
Hadrian

Hadrian died in the year 138 on the 10th of July, in his villa at
Baiae

Baiae at the age of 62. The cause of death is believed to have been
heart failure.
Dio Cassius and the
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta record details of
his failing health. He had reigned for 21 years, the longest since
Tiberius, and the fourth longest in the Principate, after Augustus,
Hadrian's successor Antoninus Pius, and Tiberius.
He was buried first at Puteoli, near Baiae, on an estate that had once
belonged to Cicero. Soon after, his remains were transferred to Rome
and buried in the Gardens of Domitia, close by the almost-complete
mausoleum. Upon completion of the
Tomb of Hadrian
.jpg/440px-Castel_Sant'Angelo_(_Mausoleo_di_Andriano).jpg)
Tomb of Hadrian in
Rome

Rome in 139 by
his successor Antoninus Pius, his body was cremated, and his ashes
were placed there together with those of his wife
Vibia Sabina

Vibia Sabina and his
first adopted son, Lucius Aelius, who also died in 138. The Senate had
been reluctant to grant
Hadrian

Hadrian divine honours; but Antoninus
persuaded them by threatening to refuse the position of
Emperor.[165][166]
Hadrian

Hadrian was given a temple on the Campus Martius,
ornamented with reliefs representing the provinces.[167] The Senate
awarded Antoninus the title of "Pius", in recognition of his filial
piety in pressing for the deification of his adoptive father.[165] At
the same time, perhaps in reflection of the senate's ill will towards
Hadrian, commemorative coinage honouring his consecration was kept to
a minimum.[168]
Military[edit]
Bust of Emperor Hadrian. Roman 117–138 CE. Probably from Rome,
Italy. Formerly in the Townley Collection. Now housed in the British
Museum, London
Most of Hadrian's military activities were consistent with his
ideology of Empire as a community of mutual interest and support. He
focussed on protection from external and internal threats; on "raising
up" existing provinces, rather than the aggressive acquisition of
wealth and territory through subjugation of "foreign" peoples that had
characterised the early Empire.[169] While the empire as a whole
benefited from this, military careerists resented the loss of
opportunities.
The 4th-century historian
Aurelius Victor saw Hadrian's withdrawal
from Trajan's territorial gains in
Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia as a jealous
belittlement of Trajan's achievements (Traiani gloriae invidens).[170]
More likely, an expansionist policy was no longer sustainable; the
Empire had lost two legions, the
Legio XXII Deiotariana

Legio XXII Deiotariana and the "lost
legion" IX Hispania, possibly destroyed in a late Trajanic uprising by
the
Brigantes

Brigantes in Britain.[171]
Trajan

Trajan himself may have thought his
gains in
Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia indefensible, and abandoned them shortly before
his death.[172].
Hadrian

Hadrian granted parts of
Dacia

Dacia to the Roxolani
Sarmatians; their king Rasparaganus received Roman citizenship, client
king status, and possibly an increased subsidy.[173] Hadrian's
presence on the Dacian front at this time is mere conjecture; but
Dacia

Dacia was included in his coin series with allegories of the
provinces.[174] A controlled, partial withdrawal of troops from the
Dacian plains would have been less costly than maintaining several
Roman cavalry units and a supporting network of fortifications.[175]
Hadrian

Hadrian retained control over
Osroene

Osroene through the client king
Parthamaspates, who had once served as Trajan's client king of
Parthia;[176] and around 121,
Hadrian

Hadrian negotiated a peace treaty with
the now-independent Parthia. Late in his reign (135), the Alani
attacked Roman Cappadocia with the covert support of Pharasmanes, king
of Caucasian Iberia. The attack was repulsed by Hadrian's governor,
the historian Arrian,[177] who subsequently installed a Roman
"adviser" in Iberia.[178]
Arrian

Arrian kept
Hadrian

Hadrian well-informed on matters
related to the Black Sea and the Caucasus. Between 131 and 132 he sent
Hadrian

Hadrian a lengthy letter (Periplus of the Euxine) on a maritime trip
around the Black Sea, intended to offer relevant information in case a
Roman intervention was needed.[179]
Hadrian

Hadrian also developed permanent fortifications and military posts
along the empire's borders (limites, sl. limes) to support his policy
of stability, peace and preparedness. This helped keep the military
usefully occupied in times of peace; his Wall across Britania was
built by ordinary troops. A series of mostly wooden fortifications,
forts, outposts and watchtowers strengthened the
Danube

Danube and Rhine
borders. Troops practised intensive, regular drill routines. Although
his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones,
Hadrian's policy was peace through strength, even threat,[180] with an
emphasis on disciplina (discipline), which was the subject of two
monetary series.
Cassius Dio praised Hadrian's emphasis on "spit and
polish" as cause for the generally peaceful character of his
reign.[181] Fronto expressed other opinions on the subject. In his
view,
Hadrian

Hadrian preferred war games to actual war, and enjoyed "giving
eloquent speeches to the armies" – like the inscribed series of
addresses he made while on an inspection tour, during 128, at the new
headquarters of
Legio III Augusta

Legio III Augusta in Lambaesis[182]
Faced with a shortage of legionary recruits from Italy and other
Romanised provinces,
Hadrian

Hadrian systematised the use of less costly
numeri – ethnic non-citizen troops with special weapons, such
as Eastern mounted archers – in low-intensity, mobile defensive
tasks such as dealing with border infiltrators and
skirmishers.[183][184]
Hadrian

Hadrian is also credited with introducing units
of heavy cavalry (cataphracts) into the Roman army.[185] Fronto later
blamed
Hadrian

Hadrian for declining standards in the Roman army of his own
time.[186]
Legal and social[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian enacted, through the jurist Salvius Julianus, the first
attempt to codify Roman law. This was the Perpetual Edict, according
to which the legal actions of praetors became fixed statutes, and as
such could no longer be subjected to personal interpretation or change
by any magistrate other than the Emperor.[187][188] At the same time,
following a procedure initiated by Domitian,
Hadrian

Hadrian made the
Emperor's legal advisory board, the consilia principis ("council of
the princeps") into a permanent body, staffed by salaried legal
aides.[189] Its members were mostly drawn from the equestrian class,
replacing the earlier freedmen of the Imperial household.[190][191]
This innovation marked the superseding of surviving Republican
institutions by an openly autocratic political system.[192] The
reformed bureaucracy was supposed to exercise administrative functions
independently of traditional magistracies; objectively it did not
detract from the Senate's position. The new civil servants were free
men and as such supposed to act on behalf of the interests of the
"Crown", not of the Emperor as an individual.[190] However, the Senate
never accepted the loss of its prestige caused by the emergence of a
new aristocracy alongside it, placing more strain on the already
troubled relationship between the Senate and the Emperor.[193]
Hadrian

Hadrian codified the customary legal privileges of the wealthiest,
most influential or highest status citizens (described as
splendidiores personae or honestiores), who held a traditional right
to pay fines when found guilty of relatively minor, non-treasonous
offences. Low ranking persons - alii ("the others"), including
low-ranking citizens - were humiliores who for the same offences could
be subject to extreme physical punishments, including forced labour in
the mines or in public works, as a form of fixed-term servitude. While
Republican citizenship had carried at least notional equality under
law, and the right to justice, offences in Imperial courts were judged
and punished according to the relative prestige, rank, reputation and
moral worth of both parties; senatorial courts were apt to be lenient
when trying one of their peers, and to deal very harshly with offences
committed against one of their number by low ranking citizens or
non-citizens. For treason (maiestas) beheading was the worst
punishment that the law could inflict on honestiores; the humiliores
might suffer crucifixion, burning, or condemnation to the beasts in
the arena.[194]
A great number of Roman citizens maintained a precarious social and
economic advantage at the lower end of the hierarchy.
Hadrian

Hadrian found it
necessary to clarify that decurions, the usually middle-class, elected
local officials responsible for running the ordinary, everyday
official business of the provinces, counted as honestiores; so did
soldiers, veterans and their families, as far as civil law was
concerned; by implication, all others, including freedmen and slaves,
counted as humliores. Like most Romans,
Hadrian

Hadrian seems to have accepted
slavery as morally correct, an expression of the same natural order
that rewarded "the best men" with wealth, power and respect. When
confronted by a crowd demanding the freeing of a popular slave
charioteer,
Hadrian

Hadrian replied that he could not free a slave belonging
to another person.[195] However, he limited the punishments that
slaves could suffer; they could be lawfully tortured to provide
evidence, but they could not be lawfully killed unless guilty of a
capital offence.[196] Masters were also forbidden to sell slaves to a
gladiator trainer (lanista) or to a procurer, except as legally
justified punishment.[197]
Hadrian

Hadrian also forbade torture of free
defendants and witnesses.[198][199] He abolished ergastula, private
prisons for slaves in which kidnapped free men had sometimes been
illegally detained.[200]
Hadrian

Hadrian issued a general rescript, imposing a ban on castration,
performed on freeman or slave, voluntarily or not, on pain of death
for both the performer and the patient.[201] Under the Lex Cornelia de
Sicaris et Veneficis, castration was place on a par with conspiracy to
murder, and punished accordingly.[202] Notwithstanding his
philhellenism,
Hadrian

Hadrian was also a traditionalist. He enforced
dress-standards among the honestiores; senators and knights were
expected to wear the toga when in public. He imposed strict separation
between the sexes in theaters and public baths; to discourage
idleness, the latter were not allowed to open until 2.00 in the
afternoon, "except for medical reasons".[203]
Religious[edit]
One of Hadrian's immediate duties on accession was to seek senatorial
consent for the apotheosis of his predecessor, Trajan, and any members
of Trajan's family to whom he owed a debt of gratitude. During his
return from Brittania,
Hadrian

Hadrian may have stopped at Nemausus, to
oversee the completion or foundation of a basilica dedicated to his
patroness Plotina, who had recently died in
Rome

Rome and had been deified
at Hadrian's request.[204] Matidia Augusta, Hadrian's mother-in-law,
had died earlier, in December 119, and had also been deified.[205]
As Emperor,
Hadrian

Hadrian was also Rome's pontifex maximus, responsible for
all religious affairs and the proper functioning of official religious
institutions throughout the empire. His Hispano-Roman origins and
marked pro-Hellenism shifted the focus of the official imperial cult,
from
Rome

Rome to the Provinces. While his standard coin issues still
identified him with the traditional genius populi Romani, other issues
stressed his personal identification with Hercules Gaditanus (Hercules
of Gades), and Rome's imperial protection of Greek civilisation.[206]
He promoted
Sagalassos

Sagalassos in Greek
Pisidia

Pisidia as the Empire's leading
Imperial cult centre; his exclusively Greek
Panhellenion extolled
Athens

Athens as the spiritual centre of Greek culture.[207]
Hadrian

Hadrian added several Imperial cult centres to the existing roster,
particularly in Greece, where traditional intercity rivalries were
commonplace. Cities promoted as Imperial cult centres drew Imperial
sponsorship of festivals and sacred games, attracted tourism, trade
and private investment. Locan worthies and local sponsors were
encouraged to seek self-publicity as cult officials under the aegis of
Roman rule, and to foster reverence for Imperial authority.[208]
Hadrian's rebuilding of long-established religious centres would have
further underlined his respect for the glories of classical
Greece – something well in line with contemporary antiquarian
tastes.[209][210] During Hadrian's third and last trip to the Greek
East, there seems to have been an upwelling of religious fervour,
focussed on
Hadrian

Hadrian himself. He was given personal cult as a deity,
monuments and civic homage, according to the religious syncretism at
the time.[211]
In 136, just two years before his death,
Hadrian

Hadrian dedicated a new
Temple of Venus and Roma

Temple of Venus and Roma on the former site of Nero's Golden House.
The temple was the largest in Rome, and was built in an Hellenising
style, more Greek than Roman. The temple's dedication and statuary
associated the worship of the traditional Roman goddess Venus, divine
ancestress and protector of the Roman people, with the worship of the
goddess Roma – herself a Greek invention, hitherto worshiped only in
the provinces – to emphasise the universal nature of the
empire.[212]
Antinous[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian was criticized for the open intensity of his grief at
Antinous's death, particularly as he had delayed the apotheosis of his
own sister Paulina after her death.[213] But his attempt at turning
the deceased youth into a cult-figure found little opposition.[214]
Hadrian

Hadrian had
Antinous

Antinous deified as Osiris-
Antinous

Antinous by an Egyptian priest
at the ancient Temple of Ramesses II, very near the place of his
death.
Hadrian

Hadrian dedicated a new temple-city complex there, built in a
Graeco-Roman style, and named it Antinopolis.[215] It was a proper
Greek polis; it was granted an Imperially subsidised alimentary scheme
similar to Trajan's alimenta,[216] and its citizens were allowed
intermarriage with members of the native population, without loss of
citizen-status.
Hadrian

Hadrian thus identified an existing native cult (to
Osiris) with Roman rule.[217]The cult of
Antinous

Antinous was to become very
popular in the Greek-speaking world, and also found support in the
West. In Hadrian's villa, statues of the Tyrannicides, with a bearded
Aristogeiton and a clean-shaven Harmodios, linked his favourite to the
classical tradition of Greek love[218]
Antinous

Antinous was also compared to
the Celtic sun-god Belenos.[219]
Medals were struck with Antinous's effigy, and statues erected to him
in all parts of the empire, in all kinds of garb, including Egyptian
dress.[220] Temples were built for his worship in
Bithynia

Bithynia and
Mantineia in Arcadia. In Athens, festivals were celebrated in his
honour and oracles delivered in his name.
Antinous

Antinous was not part of the
state-sponsored, official Roman imperial cult, but provided a common
focus for the emperor and his subjects, emphasizing their sense of
community.[221] As an "international" cult figure,
Antinous

Antinous had an
enduring fame, far outlasting Hadrian's reign.[222] Local coins with
his effigy were still being struck during Caracalla's reign, and he
was invoked in a poem to celebrate the accession of Diocletian.[223]
Christians[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian continued Trajan's policy on Christians; they should not be
sought out, and should only be prosecuted for specific offences, such
as refusal to swear oaths.[224] In a rescript addressed to the
proconsul of Asia Minutius Fundanus and preserved by Justin Martyr,
Hadrian

Hadrian laid down that accusers of Christians had to bear the burden
of proof for their denunciations[225] or be punished for calumnia
(defamation).[226]
Personal and cultural interests[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian on the obverse of an aureus (123). The reverse bears a
personification of
Aequitas

Aequitas Augusti or Juno Moneta
Hadrian

Hadrian had an abiding and enthusiastic interest in art, architecture
and public works. Rome's Pantheon (temple "to all the gods"),
originally built by Agrippa and destroyed by fire in 80, was partly
restored under
Trajan

Trajan and completed under
Hadrian

Hadrian in the domed form it
retains to this day.
Hadrian's Villa

Hadrian's Villa at
Tibur

Tibur (Tivoli) provides the
greatest Roman equivalent of an Alexandrian garden, complete with
domed Serapeum, recreating a sacred landscape.[227] An anecdote from
Cassius Dio's history suggests
Hadrian

Hadrian had a high opinion of his own
architectural tastes and talents, and took their rejection as a
personal offense: at some time before his reign, his predecessor
Trajan

Trajan was discussing an architectural problem with Apollodorus of
Damascus - architect and designer of Trajan's Forum, the Column
commemorating his Dacian conquest, and his bridge across the
Danube

Danube -
when
Hadrian

Hadrian interrupted to offer his advice. Apollodorus gave him a
scathing response: "Be off, and draw your gourds [a sarcastic
reference to the domes which
Hadrian

Hadrian apparently liked to draw]. You
don't understand any of these matters". Dio claims that once Hadrian
became emperor, he showed Apollodorus drawings of the gigantic Temple
of Venus and Roma, implying that great buildings could be created
without his help. When Apollodorus pointed out the building's various
insoluble problems and faults,
Hadrian

Hadrian was enraged, sent him into
exile and later put him to death on trumped up charges.[228][229]
Hadrian

Hadrian wrote poetry in both Latin and Greek; one of the few surviving
examples is a Latin poem he reportedly composed on his deathbed (see
below). Some of his Greek productions found their way into the
Palatine Anthology.[230][231] He also wrote an autobiography, which
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta says was published under the name of Hadrian's
freedman Phlegon of Tralles. It was not, apparently, a work of great
length or revelation, but designed to scotch various rumours or
explain Hadrian's most controversial actions.[232] It is possible that
this autobiography had the form of a series of open letters to
Antoninus Pius.[233]
Hadrian

Hadrian was a passionate hunter from a young age.[234] In northwest
Asia, he founded and dedicated a city to commemorate a she-bear he
killed.[235] It is documented that in Egypt he and his beloved
Antinous

Antinous killed a lion.[235] In Rome, eight reliefs featuring Hadrian
in different stages of hunting decorate a building that began as a
monument celebrating a kill.[235]
Hadrian's philhellenism may have been one reason for his adoption,
like
Nero

Nero before him, of the beard as suited to Roman imperial
dignity;
Dio of Prusa

Dio of Prusa had equated the growth of the beard with the
Hellenic ethos.[236]. Hadrian's beard may also have served to conceal
his natural facial blemishes.[237] Most emperors before him had been
clean-shaven; most who came after him were bearded, at least until
Constantine the Great.[citation needed]
Hadrian

Hadrian was familiar with the Stoic philosophers Epictetus, and
Favorinus, and with their works. During his first stay in Greece,
before he became emperor, he attended lectures by Epictetus at
Nicopolis.[238] Shortly before the death of Plotina,
Hadrian

Hadrian had
granted her wish that the leadership of the Epicurean School in Athens
be open to a non-Roman candidate.[239]
During Hadrian's time as
Tribune

Tribune of the Plebs, omens and portents
supposedly announced his future imperial condition.[240] According to
the Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian had a great interest in astrology and
divination and had been told of his future accession to the Empire by
a grand-uncle who was himself a skilled astrologer.[241]
Poem by Hadrian[edit]
According to the Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian composed the following poem
shortly before his death:[242]
Animula, vagula, blandula
Hospes comesque corporis
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula,
Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos...
P. Aelius Hadrianus Imp.
Roving amiable little soul,
Body's companion and guest,
Now descending for parts
Colourless, unbending, and bare
Your usual distractions no more shall be there...
The poem has enjoyed remarkable popularity,[243][244] but uneven
critical acclaim.[245] According to Aelius Spartianus, the alleged
author of Hadrian's biography in the Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian "wrote
also similar poems in Greek, not much better than this one".[246] T.
S. Eliot's poem "Animula" may have been inspired by Hadrian's, though
the relationship is not unambiguous.[247]
Appraisals[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian has been described as the most versatile of all Roman
emperors, who "adroitly concealed a mind envious, melancholy,
hedonistic, and excessive with respect to his own ostentation; he
simulated restraint, affability, clemency, and conversely disguised
the ardor for fame with which he burned."[248][249] His successor
Marcus Aurelius, in his Meditations, lists those to whom he owes a
debt of gratitude;
Hadrian

Hadrian is conspicuously absent.[250] Hadrian's
tense, authoritarian relationship with his senate was acknowledged a
generation after his death by Fronto, himself a senator, who wrote in
one of his letters to
Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius that "I praised the deified
Hadrian, your grandfather, in the senate on a number of occasions with
great enthusiasm, and I did this willingly, too [...] But, if it can
be said – respectfully acknowledging your devotion towards your
grandfather – I wanted to appease and assuage
Hadrian

Hadrian as I
would
Mars Gradivus
_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_MC0058_(2).JPG/440px-0_Statue_de_Mars_(Pyrrhus)_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_MC0058_(2).JPG)
Mars Gradivus or Dis Pater, rather than to love him."[251]
Fronto adds, in another letter, that he kept some friendships, during
Hadrian's reign, "under the risk of my life" (cum periculo
capitis).[252]
Hadrian

Hadrian underscored the autocratic character of his
reign by counting his dies imperii from the day of his acclamation by
the armies, rather than the senate, and legislating by frequent use of
imperial decrees to bypass the Senate's approval.[253] The veiled
antagonism between
Hadrian

Hadrian and the Senate never grew to overt
confrontation as had happened during the reigns of overtly "bad"
emperors, because
Hadrian

Hadrian knew how to remain aloof and avoid an open
clash.[254] That
Hadrian

Hadrian spent half of his reign away from
Rome

Rome in
constant travel probably helped to mitigate the worst of this
permanently strained relationship.[255]
In 1503, Niccolò Machiavelli, though an avowed republican, esteemed
Hadrian

Hadrian as an ideal princeps, one of Rome's Five Good Emperors.
Friedrich Schiller

Friedrich Schiller called
Hadrian

Hadrian "the Empire's first servant". Edward
Gibbon admired his "vast and active genius" and his "equity and
moderation", and considered Hadrian's era as part of the "happiest era
of human history". In Ronald Syme's view,
Hadrian

Hadrian "was a Führer, a
Duce, a Caudillo".[256] According to Syme, Tacitus' description of the
rise and accession of
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius is a disguised account of Hadrian's
authoritarian Principate.[257] According, again, to Syme, Tacitus'
Annals would be a work of contemporary history, written "during
Hadrian's reign and hating it".[258]
While the balance of ancient literary opinion almost invariably
compares
Hadrian

Hadrian unfavourably to his predecessor, modern historians
have sought to examine his motives, purposes and the consequences of
his actions and policies.[259] For M.A. Levi, a summing-up of
Hadrian's policies should stress the ecumenical character of the
Empire, his development of an alternate bureaucracy disconnected from
the Senate and adapted to the needs of an "enlightened" autocracy, and
his overall defensive strategy; this would qualify him as a grand
Roman political reformer, creator of an openly absolute monarchy to
replace a sham senatorial republic.[260]
Robin Lane Fox

Robin Lane Fox credits
Hadrian

Hadrian as creator of a unified Greco-Roman cultural tradition, and as
the end of this same tradition; Hadrian's attempted "restoration" of
Classical culture within a non-democratic Empire drained it of
substantive meaning, or, in Fox's words, "kill[ed] it with
kindness".[261]
Sources and historiography[edit]
In Hadrian's time, there was already a well established convention
that one could not write a contemporary Roman imperial history for
fear of contradicting what the emperors wanted to say, read or hear
about themselves.[262][263] Fronto's correspondence and works attest
to Hadrian's character and the internal politics of his rule.[264]
Greek authors such as
Philostratus and
Pausanias wrote shortly after
Hadrian's reign, but confined their scope to the general historical
framework that shaped Hadrian's decisions, especially those relating
to Greece. Political histories of Hadrian's reign come mostly from
later sources, some of them written centuries after the reign itself.
The early 3rd-century Roman History by
Cassius Dio gave a general
account of Hadrian's reign, but the original is lost, and what
survives is a brief, Byzantine-era abridgment by the 11th-century monk
Xiphilinius, who focussed on Hadrian's religious interests, the Bar
Kokhba war, and little else. The principal source for Hadrian's life
and reign is one of several late 4th-century imperial biographies,
collectively known as the Historia Augusta. The collection as a whole
is notorious for its unreliability ("a mish mash of actual fact, cloak
and dagger, sword and sandal, with a sprinkling of Ubu Roi"),[265] but
most modern historians consider its account of
Hadrian

Hadrian to be
relatively free of outright fictions, and probably based on sound
historical sources,[266] principaly one of a lost series of imperial
biographies by the prominent 3rd-century senator Marius Maximus, who
covered the reigns of
Nerva

Nerva through to Elagabalus.[267]
The first modern historian to produce a chronological account of
Hadrian's life, supplementing the written sources with other
epigraphical, numismatic, archaeological evidence, was the German
19th-century medievalist Ferdinand Gregorovius.[268] A 1907 biography
by Weber,[268] a German nationalist and later
Nazi Party
.svg/340px-Parteiadler_der_Nationalsozialistische_Deutsche_Arbeiterpartei_(1933–1945).svg.png)
Nazi Party supporter,
incorporates the same archaeological evidence to produce an account of
Hadrian, and especially his Bar Kokhba war, that has been described as
ideologically loaded.[269][270] [271] Epigraphical studies in the
post-war period help support alternate views of Hadrian. Anthony
Birley's 1997 biography of
Hadrian

Hadrian sums up and reflect these
developments in
Hadrian

Hadrian historiography.
Nerva–Antonine family tree[edit]
v
t
e
Nerva–Antonine family tree
Q. Marcius Barea Soranus
Q. Marcius Barea Sura
Antonia Furnilla
M. Cocceius Nerva
Sergia Plautilla
P. Aelius Hadrianus
Titus
(r. 79–81)
Marcia Furnilla
Marcia
Trajanus Pater
Nerva
(r. 96–98)
Ulpia[i]
Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus
Julia Flavia[ii]
Marciana[iii]
C. Salonius Matidius[iv]
Trajan
(r. 98–117)
Plotina
P. Acilius Attianus
P. Aelius Afer[v]
Paulina Major[vi]
Lucius Mindius
(2)
Libo Rupilius Frugi
(3)
Matidia[vii]
L. Vibius Sabinus
(1)[viii]
Paulina Minor[vi]
L. Julius Ursus Servianus[ix]
Matidia Minor[vii]
Suetonius?[x]
Sabina[iii]
Hadrian[v][xi][vi] (r. 117–138)
Antinous[xii]
Julia Balbilla?[xiii]
C. Fuscus Salinator I
Julia Serviana Paulina
M. Annius Verus[xiv]
Rupilia Faustina[xv]
Boionia Procilla
Cn. Arrius Antoninus
L. Ceionius Commodus
Appia Severa
C. Fuscus Salinator II
L. Caesennius Paetus
Arria Antonina
Arria Fadilla[xvi]
T. Aurelius Fulvus
L. Caesennius Antoninus
L. Commodus
Fundania Plautia
ignota[xvii]
C. Avidius Nigrinus
M. Annius Verus[xv]
Domitia Lucilla[xviii]
Fundania[xix]
M. Annius Libo[xv]
FAUSTINA[xvi]
Antoninus Pius
(r. 138–161)[xvi]
L. Aelius Caesar[xvii]
Avidia Plautia[xvii]
Cornificia[xv]
MARCUS AURELIUS
(r. 161–180)[xx]
FAUSTINA Minor[xx]
C. Avidius Cassius[xxi]
Aurelia Fadilla[xvi]
LUCIUS VERUS
(r. 161–169)[xvii]
(1)
Ceionia Fabia[xvii]
Plautius Quintillus[xxii]
Q. Servilius Pudens
Ceionia Plautia[xvii]
Cornificia Minor[xxiii]
M. Petronius Sura
COMMODUS
(r. 177–192)[xx]
Fadilla[xxiii]
M. Annius Verus Caesar[xx]
Ti.
Claudius

Claudius Pompeianus
(2)
Lucilla[xx]
M. Plautius Quintillus[xvii]
Junius
Licinius

Licinius Balbus
Servilia Ceionia
Petronius Antoninus
L. Aurelius Agaclytus
(2)
Aurelia Sabina[xxiii]
L. Antistius Burrus
(1)
Plautius Quintillus
Plautia Servilla
C. Furius Sabinus Timesitheus
Antonia Gordiana
Junius
Licinius

Licinius Balbus?
Furia Sabina Tranquillina
GORDIAN III
(r. 238–244)
(1) = 1st spouse
(2) = 2nd spouse
(3) = 3rd spouse
Reddish purple indicates emperor of the Nerva-Antonine
dynasty
lighter purple indicates designated imperial heir of said
dynasty who never reigned
grey indicates unsuccessful imperial aspirants
bluish purple indicates emperors of other dynasties
dashed lines indicate adoption; dotted lines indicate love
affairs/unmarried relationships
small caps = posthumously deified (Augusti, Augustae, or other)
Notes:
Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an
individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree.
^ Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7.
^ Giacosa (1977), p. 8.
^ a b Levick (2014), p. 161.
^ Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161.
^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 7.
^ a b c DIR contributor (Herbert W. Benario, 2000), "Hadrian".
^ a b Giacosa (1977), p. 9.
^ Husband of Salonia Matidia: Levick (2014), p. 161.
^ Smith (1870), "Julius Servianus".[dead link]
^
Suetonius

Suetonius a possible lover of Sabina: One interpretation of HA
Hadrianus 11:3
^ Smith (1870), "Hadrian", pp. 319–322.[dead link]
^ Lover of Hadrian: Lambert (1984), p. 99 and passim;
deification: Lamber (1984), pp. 2-5, etc.
^
Julia Balbilla a possible lover of Sabina: A. R. Birley (1997),
Hadrian, the Restless Emperor, p. 251, cited in Levick (2014), p. 30,
who is sceptical of this suggestion.
^ Husband of
Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163.
^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 163.
^ a b c d Levick (2014), p. 162.
^ a b c d e f g Levick (2014), p. 164.
^ Wife of M. Annius Verus: Giacosa (1977), p. 10.
^ Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163.
^ a b c d e Giacosa (1977), p. 10.
^ The epitomator of
Cassius Dio (72.22) gives the story that Faustina
the Elder promised to marry Avidius Cassius. This is also echoed in HA
"Marcus Aurelius" 24.
^ Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164.
^ a b c Levick (2014), p. 117.
References:
DIR contributors (2000). "De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online
Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families". Retrieved
2015-04-14.
Giacosa, Giorgio (1977). Women of the Caesars: Their Lives and
Portraits on Coins. Translated by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni
Arte e Moneta. ISBN 0-8390-0193-2.
Lambert, Royston (1984). Beloved and God: The Story of
Hadrian

Hadrian and
Antinous. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-15708-2.
Levick, Barbara (2014). Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the
Golden Age. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-537941-9.
William Smith, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology.
Notes[edit]
^ As emperor his name was Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius
Traianus Hadrianus Augustus.
See Also[edit]
Hadrian

Hadrian (opera), an opera based on Hadrian's life and death and his
relationship with Antinous.
Citations[edit]
^ Ando, Clifford. “Phoenix.” Phoenix, vol. 52, no. 1/2, 1998, pp.
183–185. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1088268.
^ Mary T. Boatwright (2008). "From
Domitian

Domitian to Hadrian". In Barrett,
Anthony. Lives of the Caesars. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 159.
ISBN 978-1-4051-2755-4.
^ Alicia M. Canto, Itálica, sedes natalis de Adriano. 31 textos
históricos y argumentos para una secular polémica, Athenaeum XCII/2,
2004, 367-408.
^ Ronald Syme, "
Hadrian

Hadrian and Italica" (Journal of Roman Studies, LIV,
1964; pp. 142–149) supports the position that
Rome

Rome was
Hadrian's birthplace. Canto argues that among the ancient sources,
only the Historia Augusta, Vita Hadriani 2,4, supports this; 25 other
sources, including Hadrian's horoscope, state that he was born in
Italica. See Stephan Heiler, "The Emperor
Hadrian

Hadrian in the Horoscopes of
Antigonus of Nicaea", in Günther Oestmann, H. Darrel Rutkin, Kocku
von Stuckrad, eds.,Horoscopes and Public Spheres: Essays on the
History of Astrology, Walter de Gruyter, 2005, p. 49
ISBN 978-3-11-018545-4: Cramer, FH.,
Astrology

Astrology in Roman Law and
Politics, Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 37,
Philadelphia, 1954 (reprinted 1996), 162–178, footnotes 121b, 122 et
al.,Googlebooks preview O. Neugebauer and H. B. Van Hoesen,
"Greek Horoscopes" Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 48,
76, Philadelphia, 1959, pp. 80 - 90, 91, and footnote 19, googlebooks
preview of 1987 edition
^ Alicia M. Canto, "La dinastía Ulpio-Aelia (96–192 d.C.): ni tan
Buenos, ni tan Adoptivos ni tan Antoninos". Gerión (21.1), pp.
263–305, 2003, citing Historia Augusta, 'Hadrian', I-II
^ On the numerous senatorial families from Spain residing at
Rome

Rome and
its vicinity around the time of Hadrian's birth see R. Syme,
'Spaniards at Tivoli', in Roman Papers IV (Oxford, 1988),
pp. 96–114. Tivoli (Tibur) was of course the site of Hadrian's
own imperial villa.
^ a b Royston Lambert, Beloved And God, pp. 31–32.
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 37
^ John D. Grainger,
Nerva

Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD
96–99. Abingdon: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-34958-3, p. 109
^ Thorsten Opper, The Emperor Hadrian.
British Museum

British Museum Press, 2008,
p. – 39
^ Jörg Fündling, Kommentar zur Vita Hadriani der
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta (=
Antiquitas. Reihe 4: Beiträge zur Historia-Augusta-Forschung, Serie
3: Kommentare, Bände 4.1 und 4.2). Habelt, Bonn 2006,
ISBN 3-7749-3390-1, p. 351.
^ John D. Grainger,
Nerva

Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis, p. 109;
Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds. The Cambridge
Ancient History – XI. Cambridge U. P.: 2000,
ISBN 0-521-26335-2, p. 133.
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 54
^ Boatwright, in Barrett, p. 158
^ The text of
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta (Vita Hadriani, 3.8) is garbled,
stating that Hadrian's election to the praetorship was contemporary
"to the second consulate of Suburanus and Servianus" – two
characters that had non-simultaneous second consulships – so
Hadrian's election could be dated to 102 or 104, the later date being
the most accepted
^ a b Bowman, p. 133
^ Anthony Everitt, 2013, Chapter XI: "holding back the Sarmatians" may
simply have meant maintaining and patrolling the border.
^ The inscription in footnote 1
^ The Athenian inscription confirms and expands the one in Historia
Augusta; see John Bodel, ed., Epigraphic Evidence: Ancient History
From Inscriptions. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0-415-11623-6,
p. 89
^ His career in office up to 112/113 is attested by the Athens
inscription, 112 AD: CIL III, 550 = InscrAtt 3 = IG II, 3286 = Dessau
308 = IDRE 2, 365: decemvir stlitibus iudicandis/ sevir turmae equitum
Romanorum/ praefectus Urbi feriarum Latinarum/ tribunus militum
legionis II Adiutricis Piae Fidelis (95, in Pannonia Inferior)/
tribunus militum legionis V Macedonicae (96, in Moesia Inferior)/
tribunus militum legionis XXII Primigeniae Piae Fidelis (97, in
Germania Superior)/ quaestor (101)/ ab actis senatus/ tribunus plebis
(105)/ praetor (106)/ legatus legionis I Minerviae Piae Fidelis (106,
in Germania Inferior)/ legatus Augusti pro praetore Pannoniae
Inferioris (107)/ consul suffectus (108)/ septemvir epulonum (before
112)/ sodalis Augustalis (before 112)/ archon Athenis (112/13). He
also held office as legatus Syriae (117): see H. W. Benario in
Roman-emperors.org
^ Anthony Birley,
Hadrian

Hadrian the Restless Emperor, p. 68
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 75
^ Karl Strobel: Kaiser Traian. Eine Epoche der Weltgeschichte.
Regensburg: 2010, p. 401.
^ Robert H. Allen, The Classical Origins of Modern Homophobia,
Jefferson: Mcfarland, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7864-2349-1, p. 120
^ Hidalgo de la Vega, Maria José: "Plotina, Sabina y Las Dos
Faustinas: La Función de Las Augustas en La Politica Imperial".
Studia historica, Historia antigua, 18, 2000, pp. 191–224. Available
at [1]. Retrieved January 11, 2017
^ Plotina may have sought to avoid the fate of her contemporary,
former empress Domitia Longina, who had fallen into social and
political oblivion: see François Chausson, "Variétés
Généalogiques IV:Cohésion, Collusions, Collisions: Une Autre
Dynastie Antonine", in Giorgio Bonamente, Hartwin Brandt, eds.,
Historiae Augustae Colloquium Bambergense. Bari: Edipuglia, 2007,
ISBN 978-88-7228-492-6, p.143
^ Marasco, p. 375
^ Tracy Jennings, "A Man Among Gods: Evaluating the Signficance of
Hadrian's Acts of Deification." Journal of Undergraduate Research: 54.
Available at [2] Archived 16 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine..
Accessed April 15, 2017
^ This made
Hadrian

Hadrian the first senator in history to have an Augusta as
his mother-in-law, something that his contemporaries could not fail to
notice: see Christer Brun, "Matidia die Jüngere", IN Anne Kolb, ed.,
Augustae. Machtbewusste Frauen am römischen Kaiserhof?:
Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis II. Akten der Tagung in
Zürich 18.-20. 9. 2008. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010,
ISBN 978-3-05-004898-7, p. 230
^ Thorsten Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Harvard University
Press, 2008, p.170
^ David L. Balch, Carolyn Osiek, eds., Early Christian Families in
Context: An Interdisciplinary Dialogue. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-8028-3986-X, p. 301
^ Anthony R Birley, Hadrian: The Restless Emperor, p. 54
^ Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds., The Cambridge
Ancient History, XI, p. 133
^ Mackay, Christopher. Ancient Rome: a Military and Political History.
Cambridge U. Press: 2007, ISBN 0-521-80918-5, p. 229
^ Fündling, 335
^ Gabriele Marasco, ed., Political Autobiographies and Memoirs in
Antiquity: A Brill Companion. Leiden: Brill, 2011,
ISBN 978-90-04-18299-8, p. 375
^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 3.7
^ In 23 BC
Augustus

Augustus handed a similar ring to his heir apparent,
Agrippa: see Judith Lynn Sebesta, Larissa Bonfante, eds., The World of
Roman Costume. University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, p. 78
^ Fündling, 351
^ Fündling, 384; Strobel, 401.
^ John Richardson, "The Roman Mind and the power of fiction" IN Lewis
Ayres, Ian Gray Kidd, eds. The Passionate Intellect: Essays on the
Transformation of Classical Traditions : Presented to Professor
I.G. Kidd. New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1995,
ISBN 1-56000-210-7, p. 128
^ Elizabeth Speller, p. 25
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 80
^ Stephan Brassloff, "Die Rechtsfrage bei der Adoption Hadrians".
Hermes 49. Bd., H. 4 (Sep., 1914), pp. 590–601
^ The coin legend runs HADRIANO TRAIANO CAESARI; see Roman, Yves,
Rémy, Bernard & Riccardi, Laurent:" Les intrigues de Plotine et
la succession de Trajan. À propos d'un aureus au nom d'Hadrien
César". Révue des études anciennes, T. 111, 2009, no. 2, pp.
508-517
^ Kennedy, Maev (2008-06-09). "How Victorian restorers faked the
clothes that seemed to show Hadrian's softer side". Guardian.co.uk.
Retrieved 2008-06-09.
^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 6.2
^ Egyptian papyri tell of one such ceremony betwee n 117 and 118; see
Michael Peppard, The Son of God in the Roman World: Divine Sonship in
Its Social and Political Context. Oxford U. Press, 2011,
ISBN 978-0-19-975370-3, pp. 72f
^ Royston Lambert, p. 34
^ Cizek, Eugen. L'éloge de Caius Avidius Nigrinus chez Tacite et le "
complot " des consulaires. In: Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume
Budé, no. 3, octobre 1980. pp. 276–294. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
Available at [3]
^ a b Elizabeth Speller.
^ It is likely that
Hadrian

Hadrian found Attianus' ambition suspect. Attianus
was likely dead, or executed, by the end of Hadrian's reign; see
Françoise Des Boscs-Plateaux, Un parti hispanique à Rome?: ascension
des élites hispaniques et pouvoir politique d'Auguste à Hadrien, 27
av. J.-C.-138 ap. J.-C. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2005,
ISBN 84-95555-80-8, p. 611
^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, 55
^ John Antony Crook, Consilium Principis: Imperial Councils and
Counsellors from
Augustus

Augustus to Diocletian. Cambridge University Press:
1955, pp. 54f
^ Marasco, p. 377
^ M. Christol & D. Nony,
Rome

Rome et son Empire. Paris: Hachette,
2003, ISBN 2-01-145542-1, p. 158
^ Hadrien Bru, Le pouvoir impérial dans les provinces syriennes:
Représentations et célébrations d'Auguste à Constantin. Leiden:
Brill, 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-20363-1, pp. 46f
^ Carcopino Jérôme. "L'hérédité dynastique chez les Antonins".
Revue des Études Anciennes. Tome 51, 1949, no.3–4. pp. 262–321.
^ Cizek, "L'éloge de Caius Avidius Nigrinus"
^ Nigrinus' ambiguous relationship with
Hadrian

Hadrian would have
consequences late in Hadrian's reign, when he had to plan his own
succession; see Anthony Everitt,
Hadrian

Hadrian and the triumph of Rome. New
York: Random House, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4000-6662-9.
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 91
^ Christol & Nony, p. 158
^ Richard P. Saller, Personal Patronage Under the Early Empire.
Cambridge Un iversity Press: 2002, ISBN 0-521-23300-3, p. 140
^ Richard A. Bauman, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Rome. London:
Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-203-42858-7, p. 83
^ Digest, 49 2, I,2, quoted by P.E. Corbett, "The Legislation of
Hadrian". University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law
Register, Vol. 74, No. 8 (Jun., 1926), pp. 753–766
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 88
^ Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers,
Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press, 2012,
ISBN 978-0-19-973784-0, p. 153
^ Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome: Trust in
the Gods But Verify. London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-7146-5480-9,
p. 253
^ Paul Veyne, Le Pain et le Cirque, Paris: Seuil, 1976,
ISBN 2-02-004507-9, p. 655
^ András Mócsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia (
Routledge

Routledge Revivals): A
History of the Middle
Danube

Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire, Routledge,
2014 Hadrian
^ Paul Veyne, " Humanitas: Romans and non-Romans". In Andrea Giardina,
ed., The Romans, University of Chicago Press: 1993,
ISBN 0-226-29049-2, p. 364
^ a b Christol & Nony, p. 159
^ Larry Joseph Kreitzer, Striking New Images: Roman Imperial Coinage
and the New Testament World. Sheffield: A & C Black, 1996,
ISBN 1-85075-623-6, pp. 194ff
^ Simon Goldhill, Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the
Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University
Press, 2006, p. 12 ISBN 0-521-66317-2
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 123
^ Opper, p. 79
^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Hadrian, xi, 2
^ Patrick le Roux, Le haut-Empire romain en Occident d'Auguste
aux Sévères. Paris: Seuil, 1998, ISBN 2-02-025932-X, p. 396
^ Breeze, David J., and Brian Dobson, "Hadrian's Wall: Some Problems",
Britannia, Vol. 3, (1972), pp. 182–208
^ "Britannia on British Coins". Chard. Retrieved 2006-06-25.
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 145
^ Potter, David S. (2014). The
Roman Empire

Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395.
Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 9781134694778.
^ Jason König, Katerina Oikonomopoulou, Greg Woolf, eds. Ancient
Libraries. Cambridge U. Press: 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-01256-1, page
251
^ Anthony Everitt,
Hadrian

Hadrian and the triumph of Rome.
^ William E. Mierse, Temples and Towns in Roman Iberia: The Social and
Architectural Dynamics of Sanctuary Designs from the Third Century
B.C. to the Third Century A.D.. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2009, ISBN 0-520-20377-1, page 141
^ Royston Lambert, pp. 41–2
^ Anthony Birley, pp. 151–2
^ The rebuilding continued until late in Hadrian's reign; in 138 a
statue of
Zeus

Zeus was erected there, dedicated to
Hadrian

Hadrian as Cyrene's
"saviour and founder". See E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman
Rule from Pompey to Diocletian : a Study in Political Relations.
Leiden, Brill, 2001, 0-391-04155-X, p. 410
^ Anthony Birley, pp. 153–5
^ a b Anthony Birley, pp. 157–8
^ Royston Lambert, pp. 60–1
^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, p. 171
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 164–7
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 175–7
^ Kaja Harter-Uibopuu, "
Hadrian

Hadrian and the Athenian Oil Law", in O.M. Van
Nijf – R. Alston (ed.), Feeding the Ancient Greek city.
Groningen- Royal Holloway Studies on the Greek City after the
Classical Age, vol. 1, Louvain 2008, pp. 127–141
^ Brenda Longfellow, Roman Imperialism and Civic Patronage: Form,
Meaning and Ideology in Monumental Fountain Complexes. Cambridge U.
Press: 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-19493-8, p. 120
^ Verhoogen Violette. Review of Graindor (Paul). Athènes sous
Hadrien, Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, 1935, vol. 14,
no. 3, pp. 926–931. Available at [4]. Retrieved June 20,
2015
^ Mark Golden, Greek Sport and Social Status, University of Texas
Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-292-71869-2, p. 88
^ Cynthia Kosso, Anne Scott, eds., The Nature and Function of Water,
Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance.
Leiden: Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-17357-6, pp. 216f
^ Alexia Petsalis-Diomidis, Truly Beyond Wonders:
Aelius Aristides

Aelius Aristides and
the Cult of Asklepios. OUP : 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-956190-2,
p. 171
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 177–80
^ David S. Potter,The
Roman Empire

Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395. London:
Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-84054-5, p. 44
^ Boatwright, p. 134
^ K. W. Arafat, Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers.
Cambridge U. Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-55340-7, pp. 162, 185
^ Birley, "
Hadrian

Hadrian and Greek Senators", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie
und Epigraphik 116 (1997), pp. 209–245. Retrieved July 23, 2015
^ Christol & Nony, p. 203
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 182–4
^ a b c Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 191–200
^ J. Declareuil,
Rome

Rome the Law-Giver, London: Routledge, 2013,
ISBN 0-415-15613-0, p. 72
^ Clifford Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman
Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000,
ISBN 978-0-520-22067-6
^ Royston Lambert, pp. 71–2
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 213–4
^ Anthony Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 215–20
^ Boatwright, p. 81
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 235
^ Boatwright, p. 142
^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, p. 173
^
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta (c. 395) Hadr. 14.5–7
^ Boatwright, p. 150
^ Anthony Kaldellis, Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of
Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical TraditionCambridge
U. Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-87688-9, p. 38
^ Fernando A. Marín Valdés, Plutarco y el arte de la Atenas
hegemónica. Universidad de Oviedo: 2008, ISBN 978-84-8317-659-7,
p. 76
^ A. J. S. Spawforth, Greece and the Augustan Cultural Revolution.
Cambridge University Press: 2011, ISBN 978-1-107-01211-0, p. 262
^ Nathanael J. Andrade, Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World.
Cambridge University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9, p. 176
^ Georg Simmel, Sociology: Inquiries into the Construction of Social
Forms. Leiden: Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-17321-7, p. 288
^ Nathanael J. Andrade, Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World,
Cambridge University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-01205-9, page
177
^ Andrew M. Smith II, Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State
Formation. Oxford University Press: 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1,
page 25; Robert K. Sherk, The Roman Empire:
Augustus

Augustus to Hadrian.
Cambridge University Press:1988, ISBN 0-521-33887-5, page 190
^ Hadrien Bru, Le pouvoir impérial dans les provinces syriennes:
Représentations et célébrations d'Auguste à Constantin (31 av.
J.-C.-337 ap. J.-C.). Leiden: Brill,2011, ISBN 978-90-04-20363-1,
pages 104/105
^ Laura Salah Nasrallah, Christian Responses to Roman Art and
Architecture: The Second-Century Church Amid the Spaces of Empire.
Cambridge University Press, 2010 ISBN 978-0-521-76652-4, page 96
^ Giovanni Battista Bazzana, "The Bar Kokhba Revolt and Hadrian's
religious policy", IN Marco Rizzi, ed.,
Hadrian

Hadrian and the Christians.
Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-022470-2, pages 89/91
^ Bazzana, 98
^ Cf a project devised earlier by Hellenized Jewish intellectuals such
as Philo: see Rizzi,
Hadrian

Hadrian and the Christians, 4
^ Emmanuel Friedheim, "Some notes about the Samaritans and the
Rabbinic Class at Crossroads" IN Menachem Mor, Friedrich V. Reiterer,
eds., Samaritans – Past and Present: Current Studies. Berlin:
De Gruyter, 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5, page 197
^ Peter Schäfer, Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand. Tübingen 1981, pages
29–50.
^ Chronicle of Jerome, s.v. Hadrian. See: [5] See also Yigael Yadin,
Bar-Kokhba, Random House New York 1971, pp. 22, 258
^ Alexander Zephyr, Rabbi Akiva, Bar Kokhba Revolt, and the Ten Tribes
of Israel. Bloomington: iUniverse, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4917-1256-6
^ Schäfer, Peter (1998). Judeophobia: Attitudes Toward the Jews in
the Ancient World. Harvard University Press. pp. 103–105.
ISBN 978-0-674-04321-3. Retrieved 2014-02-01. [...] Hadrian's ban
on circumcision, allegedly imposed sometime between 128 and 132 CE
[...]. The only proof for Hadrian's ban on circumcision is the short
note in the Historia Augusta: 'At this time also the Jews began war,
because they were forbidden to mutilate their genitals (quot
vetabantur mutilare genitalia). [...] The historical credibility of
this remark is controversial [...] The earliest evidence for
circumcision in Roman legislation is an edict by Antoninus Pius
(138–161 CE), Hadrian's successor [...] [I]t is not utterly
impossible that
Hadrian

Hadrian [...] indeed considered circumcision as a
'barbarous mutilation' and tried to prohihit it. [...] However, this
proposal cannot be more than a conjecture, and, of course, it does not
solve the questions of when
Hadrian

Hadrian issued the decree (before or
during/after the Bar Kokhba war) and whether it was directed solely
against Jews or also against other peoples.
^ Mackay, Christopher. Ancient
Rome

Rome a Military and Political History:
230
^ Peter Schäfer, The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on
the Second Jewish Revolt Against
Rome

Rome Mohr Siebeck, 2003 p. 68
^ Peter Schäfer, The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World:
The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest.
Routledge:2003, p. 146
^ Historia Augusta, Hadrian14.2
^ Shaye Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Third Edition.
Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press,2014,
ISBN 978-0-664-23904-6, pp. 25–26
^ Peter Schäfer, Der Bar Kokhba-Aufstand, Tübingen 1981, pp. 29–50
^ Possibly the XXII Deiotariana, which according to epigraphy did not
outlast Hadrian's reign; see
[http://www.livius.org/le-lh/legio/xxii_deiotariana.html livius.org
account; however, Peter Schäfer, following Bowersock, finds no traces
in the written sources of the purported annihilation of Legio XXII. A
loss of such magnitude would have surely been mentioned (Der Bar
Kokhba-Aufstand, 14).
^
Cassius Dio 69, 14.3Roman History. Many Romans, moreover, perished
in this war. Therefore
Hadrian

Hadrian in writing to the Senate did not employ
the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors[...]
^ Daniel R. Schwartz, Zeev Weiss, eds., Was 70 CE a Watershed in
Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction
of the Second Temple. Leiden: Brill, 2011,
ISBN 978-90-04-21534-4, page 529, footnote 42
^ Epiphanius, Treatise on Weights and Measures – Syriac Version (ed.
James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press, c1935, p. 30
^ Ken Dowden, Zeus. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006,
ISBN 0-415-30502-0, page 58.
^ Anna Collar, Religious Networks in the Roman Empire. Cambridge
University Press: 2013, ISBN 978-1-107-04344-2, pp. 248-249
^ Geza Vermes, Who's Who in the Age of Jesus, Penguin: 2006, no ISBN
given, entry "Hadrian"
^ Ronald Syme, "Journeys of Hadrian" (1988), pp. 164–9
^ Ronald Syme, "Journeys Of Hadrian". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und
Epigraphik 73 (1988) 159–170. Available at [6]. Retrieved January
20, 2017.
^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 10.3
^ Historia Augusta, Life of Hadrian, 23.9
^ Anne Kolb, Augustae. Machtbewusste Frauen am römischen Kaiserhof?:
Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis II. Akten der Tagung in
Zürich 18.-20. 9. 2008. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2010,
ISBN 978-3-05-004898-7, pages 26/27
^ Olivier Hekster, Emperors and Ancestors: Roman Rulers and the
Constraints of Tradition. Oxford U. Press: 2015,
ISBN 978-0-19-873682-0, pages 140/142
^ Merlin Alfred. Passion et politique chez les Césars (review of
Jérôme Carcopino, Passion et politique chez les Césars). In:
Journal des savants. Jan.-Mar. 1958. pp. 5–18. Available at [7].
Retrieved June 12, 2015.
^ Albino Garzetti, From
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius to the Antonines : A History of
the
Roman Empire

Roman Empire AD 14–192. London: Routledge, 2014, p. 699
^ András Mócsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia (
Routledge

Routledge Revivals): A
History of the Middle
Danube

Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. London:
Routledge, 2014, ISBN 978-0-415-74582-6, p. 102
^ Anthony Birley, pp. 289–292.
^ a b The adoptions: Anthony Birley, pp. 294–5; T.D. Barnes,
'
Hadrian

Hadrian and Lucius Verus', Journal of Roman Studies (1967), Ronald
Syme, Tacitus, p. 601. Antoninus as a legate of Italy: Anthony
Birley, p. 199
^ Annius Verus was also the step-grandson of the Prefect of Rome,
Lucius Catilius Severus, one of the remnants of the all-powerful group
of Spanish senators from Trajan's reign.
Hadrian

Hadrian would likely have
shown some favor to the grandson in order to count on the
grandfather's support; for an account of the various familial and
marital alliances involved, see Des Boscs-Plateaux, pp. 241, 311, 477,
577; see also Frank McLynn,Marcus Aurelius: A Life. New York: Da Capo,
2010, ISBN 978-0-306-81916-2, p. 84
^ Anthony Birley, pp. 291–2
^ Dio 69.17.2
^ Anthony Birley, p. 297
^ a b Salmon, 816
^ Dio 70.1.1
^ Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome.
Cambridge University Press: 2015, ISBN 978-1-108-08324-9, p. 250
^ Christian Bechtold, Gott und Gestirn als Präsenzformen des toten
Kaisers: Apotheose und Katasterismos in der politischen Kommunikation
der römischen Kaiserzeit und ihre Anknüpfungspunkte im
Hellenismus.V&R unipress GmbH: 2011, ISBN 978-3-89971-685-6,
p. 259
^ Clifford Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman
Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000,
ISBN 0-520-22067-6, p. 330
^ W. Den Boer, Some Minor Roman Historians, Leiden: Brill, 1972,
ISBN 90-04-03545-1, p. 41
^ Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army. London: Routledge, 2013,
ISBN 0-415-22295-8, p. 55
^ Albino Garzetti, From
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius to the Antonines (Routledge
Revivals): A History of the
Roman Empire

Roman Empire AD 14-192. London: Routledge,
2014, ISBN 978-1-138-01920-1, p. 381
^ This partial withdrawal was probably supervised by the governor of
Moesia Quintus Pompeius Falco; see Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 84
& 86.
^ Eutropius' notion that
Hadrian

Hadrian contemplated withdrawing from Dacia
altogether appears to be unfounded; see Jocelyn M. C. Toynbee, The
Hadrianic School: A Chapter in the History of Greek Art. CUP Archive,
1934, 79
^ Julian Bennett, Trajan-Optimus Priceps. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-253-21435-1, p. 165
^ Opper, Empire and Conflict, p. 67
^ N. J. E. Austin & N. B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military &
Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to
the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge, 2002, p. 4
^ Austin & Rankov, p. 30
^ Fergus Millar, Rome, the Greek World, and the East: Volume 2:
Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire. The University
of North Carolina Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8078-2852-1, p. 183
^ Elizabeth Speller, p. 69
^ Opper, p. 85
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 209-212
^ Luttvak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the
First Century A.D. to the Third, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4, p. 123
^ Christol & Nony, p. 180
^ The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors–
Google Knihy. Books.google.cz. December 11, 2012.
ISBN 978-1-78076-060-5. Retrieved 2016-09-03.
^ Fronto: Selected Letters. Edited by Caillan Davenport & Jenifer
Manley, London: AC & Black, 2014, ISBN 978-1-78093-442-6, pp.
184f
^ Laura Jansen, The Roman Paratext: Frame, Texts, Readers, Cambridge
University Press, 2014, ISBN 978-1-107-02436-6 p. 66
^ Kathleen Kuiper (Editor), Ancient Rome: From Romulus and Remus to
the Visigoth Invasion, New York: Britannica Educational Publishing,
2010, ISBN 978-1-61530-207-9 p. 133
^ A. Arthur Schiller, Roman Law: Mechanisms of Development, Walter de
Gruyter: 1978, ISBN 90-279-7744-5 p. 471
^ a b Salmon, 812
^ R.V. Nind Hopkins, Life of Alexander Severus, CUP Archive, p. 110
^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law, Volume 43,
Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1968,
ISBN 0-87169-435-2 p. 650
^ Salmon, 813
^ Garnsey, Peter, "Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire", Past &
Present, No. 41 (Dec., 1968), pp. 9, 13 (note 35), 16, published by
Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society,
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/650001 (accessed: 03-12-2017
21:20 UTC)
^ Westermann, 109
^ Marcel Morabito, Les realités de l'esclavage d'après Le Digeste.
Paris: Presses Univ. Franche-C omté, 1981,
ISBN 978-2-251-60254-7, p. 230
^ Donald G. Kyle, Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London:
Routledge, 2012, ISBN 0-415-09678-2;William Linn Westermann, The
Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity. Philadelphia: American
Philosophical Society, 1955, p. 115
^ Digest 48.18.21; quoted by Q.F. Robinson, Penal Practice and Penal
Policy in Ancient Rome. Abingdon: Routledge,
2007ISBN 978-0-415-41651-1, p.107
^ Judith Perkins, Roman Imperial Identities in the Early Christian
Era. Abingdon: Routledge, 2009, ISBN 978-0-415-39744-5
^ Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers,
Administration, and Public Order. Oxford University Press, 2012,
ISBN 978-0-19-973784-0, p. 102
^ Digest, 48.8.4.2, quoted by Paul Du Plessis, Borkowski's Textbook on
Roman Law. Oxford University Press, 2015, ISBN 978-0-19-957488-9,
p. 95
^ Peter Schäfer, Judeophobia, 104.
^ Garzetti, p. 411
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 145
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 107
^ Gradel, Ittai, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion, Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-815275-2, pp. 194-5.
^ Howgego, in Howgego, C., Heuchert, V., Burnett, A., (eds), Coinage
and Identity in the Roman Provinces, Oxford University Press, 2005.
ISBN 978-0-19-926526-8, pp. 6, 10.
^ Boatwright, p. 136
^ Boatwright, p. 134
^ K. W. Arafat, Pausanias' Greece: Ancient Artists and Roman Rulers.
Cambridge U. Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-55340-7, p. 162
^ Marcel Le Glay. "Hadrien et l'Asklépieion de Pergame". In: Bulletin
de correspondance hellénique. Volume 100, livraison 1, 1976.
pp. 347–372. Available at [8]. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
^ Mellor, R., "The Goddess Roma" in Haase, W., Temporini, H., (eds),
Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt, de Gruyter, 1991,
ISBN 3-11-010389-3, pp. 960-964
^ Hadrian's "Hellenic" emotionalism finds a culturally sympathetic
echo in the Homeric Achilles' mourning for his friend Patroclus: see
discussion in Vout, Caroline, Power and eroticism in Imperial Rome,
illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
ISBN 0-521-86739-8, pp. 52–135.
^ Craig A. Williams, Roman Homosexuality : Ideologies of
Masculinity in Classical Antiquity. Oxford University Press: 1999,
ISBN 978-0-19-511300-6, pp. 60f
^ Cassius Dio, LIX.11; Historia Augusta, Hadrian
^ Tim Cornell, Dr Kathryn Lomas, eds., Bread and Circuses: Euergetism
and Municipal Patronage in Roman Italy. London: Routledge, 2003,
ISBN 0-415-14689-5, p. 97
^ Carl F. Petry, ed. The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1.
Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-47137-4, p. 15
^ Elsner, pp. 176f
^ Williams, p. 61
^ Jás Elsner, Imperial
Rome

Rome and Christian Triumph, Oxford History of
Art, Oxford U.P., 1998, ISBN 0-19-284201-3, p. 183f.
^ Marco Rizzi, p. 12
^ see Trevor W. Thompson "Antinoos, The New God: Origen on Miracle and
Belief in Third Century Egypt" for the persistence of Antinous's cult
and Christian reactions to it. Freely available. The relationship of
P. Oxy. 63.4352 with Diocletian's accession is not entirely clear.
^ Caroline Vout, Power and Eroticism in Imperial Rome. Cambridge
University Press; 2007, p. 89
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, pp. 127 and 183.
^ Alessandro Galimberti, "Hadrian, Eleusis, and the beginnings of
Christian apologetics" in Marco Rizzi, ed.,
Hadrian

Hadrian and the
Christians. Berlim: De Gruyter, 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-022470-2, pp.
77f
^ Robert M. Haddad, The Case for Christianity: St. Justin Martyr's
Arguments for Religious Liberty and Judicial Justice. Plymouth: Rowman
& Littlefield, 2010, ISBN 978-1-58979-575-4, p. 16
^ It was lost in large part to despoliation by the Cardinal d'Este,
who had much of the marble removed to build the
Villa d'Este

Villa d'Este in the
16th century.
^ Brickstamps with consular dates show that the Pantheon's dome was
late in Trajan's reign (115), probably under Apollodorus's
supervision: see Ilan Vit-Suzan, Architectural Heritage Revisited: A
Holistic Engagement of its Tangible and Intangible Constituents ,
Farnham: Ashgate, 2014, ISBN 978-1-4724-2062-6, p. 20
^ Cassius Dio, "Roman History", 69.4, Loeb Classical Library edition,
1925[9]
^ Juan Gil & Sofía Torallas Tovar, Hadrianus. Barcelona: CSIC,
2010, ISBN 978-84-00-09193-4, p. 100
^ Direct links to Hadrian's poems in the A.P. with W.R. Paton's
translation at the Internet Archive VI 332, VII 674, IX 137, IX 387
^ T. J. Cornell, ed., The Fragments of the Roman Historians. Oxford
University Press: 2013, p. 591
^ Opper, Hadrian: Empire and Conflict, p. 26
^ Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian 2.1.
^ a b c Fox, Robin The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to
Hadrian

Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 p. 574
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 62
^ The
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta however claims that "he wore a full beard to
cover up the natural blemishes on his face", H.A. 26.1
^ Robin Lane Fox, The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to
Hadrian. Philadelphia: Basic Books, 2006, ISBN 978-0-465-02497-1,
p. 578
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 108f
^ For instance, a probably bogus anecdote in
Historia Augusta
.jpg/440px-Historia_Augusta,_seu_Vitae_Romanorum_Caesarum_-_Upper_cover_(Davis643).jpg)
Historia Augusta relates
that as tribune he had lost a cloak that emperors never wore: Michael
Reiche, ed., Antike Autobiographien: Werke, Epochen, Gattungen. Köln:
Böhlau, 2005, ISBN 3-412-10505-8, p. 225
^ Christiane L. Joost-Gaugier, Measuring Heaven: Pythagoras and His
Influence on Thought and Art in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Cornell
University Press: 2007, ISBN 978-0-8014-4396-1, p. 177
^ Historia Augusta,
Hadrian

Hadrian Dio 25.9; Antony Birley, p. 301
^ see e.g.Forty-three translations of Hadrian's "Animula, vagula,
blandula ..." including translations by Henry Vaughan, A. Pope, Lord
Byron.
^ A.A.Barb, "Animula, Vagula, Blandula", Folklore, 61, 1950 :
"... since
Casaubon almost three and a half centuries of classical
scholars have admired this poem"
^ see Note 2 in Emanuela Andreoni Fontecedro's "Animula vagula
blandula: Adriano debitore di Plutarco", Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura
Classica, 1997
^ "tales autem nec multo meliores fecit et Graecos", Historia Augusta,
ibidem
^ Russell E. Murphy, Critical Companion to T. S. Eliot: A Literary
Reference to His Life and Work, 2007. p.48
^ Varius multiplex multiformis in the anonymous, ancient Epitome de
Caesaribus, 14.6: trans. Thomas M. Banchich, Canisius College,
Buffalo, New York, 2009 Retrieved 24 March 2018
^ cf Ronald Syme, among others; see Ando, footnote 172
^ McLynn, 42
^ "Wytse Keulen, Eloquence rules: the ambiguous image of
Hadrian

Hadrian in
Fronto's correspondence". [10] Retrieved February 20, 2015
^ James Uden (2010). "The Contest of Homer and Hesiod and the
ambitions of Hadrian". Journal of Hellenic Studies, 130 (2010), pp.
121-135.[11]. Accessed October 16, 2017
^ Edward Togo Salmon,A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D.
138. London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-415-04504-5, pp. 314f
^ Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 40
^ Birley, Restless Emperor, p. 1
^ See also Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain, p. 65
^ Victoria Emma Pagán, A Companion to Tacitus. Malden, MA: John Wiley
& Sons, 2012, ISBN 978-1-4051-9032-9, page 1
^ Marache, R.: R. Syme, Tacitus, 1958. In: Revue des Études
Anciennes. Tome 61, 1959, n°1–2. pp. 202–206.available at [12].
Accessed April 30, 2017
^ Susanne Mortensen: Hadrian. Eine Deutungsgeschichte. Habelt, Bonn
2004, ISBN 3-7749-3229-8
^ Franco Sartori, "L'oecuménisme d'un empereur souvent
méconnu : [review of] M.A. Levi, Adriano, un ventennio di
cambiamento". In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne, vol. 21, no. 1, 1995.
pp. 290–297. Available at [13]. Retrieved January 19, 2017
^ The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. New
York: Basic Books, 2006, ISBN 978-0-465-02497-1, page 4
^ Steven H. Rutledge, "Writing Imperial Politics: The Social and
Political Background" IN William J. Dominik, ed;, Writing Politics in
Imperial
Rome

Rome Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-15671-5, p.60
^ Adam M. Kemezis, "Lucian, Fronto, and the absence of contemporary
historiography under the Antonines". The American Journal of Philology
Vol. 131, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 285–325
^ Mary Taliaferro Boatwright,
Hadrian

Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman
Empire. Princeton University Press, 2002, pp. 20/26
^ Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain. Paris: Seuil, 2005,
ISBN 2-02-057798-4, p. 312. In the French original: de
l'Alexandre Dumas, du péplum et un peu d'Ubu Roi.
^ Danèel den Hengst, Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on
the Literature of the Roman Empire. Leiden: Brill, 2010,
ISBN 978-90-04-17438-2, p. 93
^ Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, Dominic Rathbone, eds., The Cambridge
Ancient History', XI: the High Empire, 70–192 A.D.Cambridge
University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0521263351, p. 132
^ a b Anthony R Birley, Hadrian: The Restless Emperor. Abingdon:
Routledge, 2013, ISBN 0-415-16544-X, p. 7
^ Thomas E. Jenkins, Antiquity Now: The Classical World in the
Contemporary American Imagination. Cambridge University Press: 2015,
ISBN 978-0-521-19626-0, p. 121
^ A'haron Oppenheimer, Between
Rome

Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish
Leadership and Society.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005,
ISBN 3-16-148514-9, p. 199
^ Birley, Hadrian: the Restless Emperor, 7: Birley describes the
results of Ernst Kornemann's attempt to sift the Historia Augusta
biography's facts from its fictions (through textual analysis alone)
as doubtful. B.W. Henderson's 1923 English language biography of
Hadrian

Hadrian focusses on ancient written sources, and largely ignores or
overlooks the published archeological, epigraphic and non-literary
evidence used by Weber.
References[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
Cassius Dio or
Dio Cassius Roman History. Greek Text and Translation
by Earnest Cary at internet archive
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Augustan History. Latin Text Translated
by David Magie
Aurelius Victor, Caesares, XIV. Latin "Caesares: text – IntraText
CT". Intratext.com. 2007-05-04. Retrieved 2010-03-13.
Anon, Excerpta of Aurelius Victor: Epitome de Caesaribus, XIII. Latin
"Epitome De Caesaribus: text – IntraText CT". Intratext.com.
2007-05-04. Retrieved 2010-03-13.
Inscriptions:
Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History (Book IV), "Church History".
www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2010-03-13.
Smallwood, E.M, Documents Illustrating the Principates of
Nerva

Nerva Trajan
and Hadrian, Cambridge, 1966.
Secondary sources[edit]
Barnes, T. D. (1967). "
Hadrian

Hadrian and Lucius Verus". Journal of Roman
Studies. 57 (1/2): 65–79. doi:10.2307/299345.
JSTOR 299345.
Birley, Anthony R. (1997). Hadrian. The restless emperor. London:
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16544-X.
Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro. (2002).
Hadrian

Hadrian and the Cities of the
Roman Empire. Priceton: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-04889-4.
Canto, Alicia M. (2004). "Itálica, patria y ciudad natal de Adriano
(31 textos históricos y argumentos contra Vita Hadr. 1, 3".
Athenaeum. 92.2: 367–408. Archived from the original on October 15,
2007.
Dobson, Brian (2000). Hadrian's Wall. London: Penguin.
Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. I,
1776. The Online Library of Liberty "Online Library of Liberty – The
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1".
Oll.libertyfund.org. Retrieved 2010-03-13.
Lambert, Royston (1997). Beloved and God: the story of
Hadrian

Hadrian and
Antinous. London: Phoenix Giants. ISBN 1-85799-944-4.
Speller, Elizabeth (2003). Following Hadrian: a second-century journey
through the Roman Empire. London: Review.
ISBN 0-7472-6662-X.
Syme, Ronald (1997) [1958]. Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-814327-3.
Syme, Ronald (1964). "
Hadrian

Hadrian and Italica". Journal of Roman Studies.
LIV: 142–9. doi:10.2307/298660.
Syme, Ronald (1988). "Journeys of Hadrian" (PDF). Zeitschrift für
Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 73: 159–170. Retrieved 2006-12-12.
Reprinted in Syme, Ronald (1991). Roman Papers VI. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. pp. 346–357. ISBN 0-19-814494-6.
Further reading[edit]
Danziger, Danny; Purcell, Nicholas (2006). Hadrian's empire :
when
Rome

Rome ruled the world. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
ISBN 0-340-83361-0.
Everitt, Anthony (2009).
Hadrian

Hadrian and the triumph of Rome. New York:
Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6662-9.
Gray, William Dodge (1919). "A Study of the life of
Hadrian

Hadrian Prior to
His Accession". Smith College Studies in History. 4: 151–209.
Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1898). The Emperor Hadrian: A Picture of the
Greco-Roman World in His Time. Mary E. Robinson, trans. London:
Macmillan.
Henderson, Bernard W. (1923). Life and
Principate

Principate of the Emperor
Hadrian. London: Methuen.
Ish-Kishor, Sulamith (1935). Magnificent Hadrian: A Biography of
Hadrian, Emperor of Rome. New York: Minton, Balch and Co.
Perowne, Stewart (1960). Hadrian. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
External links[edit]
Ancient
Rome

Rome portal
Biography portal
LGBT portal
Roman Empire

Roman Empire portal
Spain portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hadrian.
Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian
Hadrian

Hadrian coinage
Catholic Encyclopedia article
Major scultoric find at
Sagalassos

Sagalassos (Turkey), 2 August 2007 (between 13
and 16 feet in height, four to five meters), with some splendid photos
courtesy of the
Sagalassos

Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project
Hadrian, in De Imperatoribus Romanis, Online Encyclopedia of Roman
Emperors
Hadrian
Nervan-Antonian dynasty
Born: 24 January AD 76 Died: 10 July AD 138
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Trajan
Roman Emperor
117–138
Succeeded by
Antoninus Pius
Political offices
Preceded by
Appius Annius Trebonius Gallus,
and Marcus Appius Bradua
as Ordinary consuls
Suffect consul

Suffect consul of the Roman Empire
108
with Marcus Trebatius Priscus
Succeeded by
Quintus Pompeius Falco,
and Marcus Titius Lustricus Bruttianus
as Suffect consuls
Preceded by
ignotus,
and Gnaeus Minicius Faustinus
as Suffect consuls
Consul of the Roman Empire
118
with Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator
Bellicius Tebanianus
Gaius Ummidius Quadratus
Succeeded by
Lucius Pompeius Bassus,
and
Titus

Titus Sabinius Barbarus
as Suffect consuls
Preceded by
Lucius Pompeius Bassus,
and
Titus

Titus Sabinius Barbarus
as Suffect consuls
Consul of the Roman Empire
119
with Publius Dasumius Rusticus,
followed by Aulus Platorius Nepos
Succeeded by
Marcus Paccius Silvanus Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus,
and Quintus Vibius Gallus
as Suffect consuls
v
t
e
Roman and Byzantine emperors
Principate
27 BC – 235 AD
Augustus
Tiberius
Caligula
Claudius
Nero
Galba
Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antoninus Pius
Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
Commodus
Pertinax
Didius Julianus
(Pescennius Niger)
(Clodius Albinus)
Septimius Severus
Caracalla

Caracalla with Geta
Macrinus

Macrinus with Diadumenian
Elagabalus
Severus Alexander
Crisis
235–284
Maximinus Thrax
Gordian I

Gordian I and Gordian II
Pupienus

Pupienus and Balbinus
Gordian III
Philip the Arab

Philip the Arab with Philip II
Decius
.jpg/440px-Emperor_Traianus_Decius_(Mary_Harrsch).jpg)
Decius with Herennius Etruscus
Hostilian
Trebonianus Gallus

Trebonianus Gallus with Volusianus
Aemilianus
Valerian
Gallienus

Gallienus with
Saloninus and Valerian II
Claudius

Claudius Gothicus
Quintillus
Aurelian
Tacitus
Florian
Probus
Carus
Carinus

Carinus and Numerian
Gallic Emperors:
Postumus
(Laelianus)
Marius
Victorinus
(Domitianus II)
Tetricus I
.jpg/350px-Aureus_Tetricus_(obverse).jpg)
Tetricus I with
Tetricus II
.jpg)
Tetricus II as Caesar
Dominate
284–395
Diocletian
_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/440px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg)
Diocletian (whole empire)
Diocletian
_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/440px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg)
Diocletian (East) and
Maximian
.jpg/440px-MSR_-_Tête_de_l'empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_(cropped).jpg)
Maximian (West)
Diocletian
_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/440px-Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-305_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg)
Diocletian (East) and
Maximian
.jpg/440px-MSR_-_Tête_de_l'empreur_Maximien_Hercule_-_Inv_34_b_(cropped).jpg)
Maximian (West) with
Galerius

Galerius (East) and
Constantius Chlorus

Constantius Chlorus (West) as Caesares
Galerius

Galerius (East) and
Constantius Chlorus

Constantius Chlorus (West) with Severus (West) and
Maximinus II (East) as Caesares
Galerius

Galerius (East) and Severus (West) with
Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (West)
and
Maximinus II (East) as Caesares
Galerius

Galerius (East) and
Maxentius

Maxentius (West) with
Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (West)
and
Maximinus II (East) as Caesares
Galerius

Galerius (East) and
Licinius

Licinius I (West) with Constantine the Great
(West) and
Maximinus II (East) as Caesares
Maxentius

Maxentius (alone)
Licinius

Licinius I (West) and
Maximinus II (East) with Constantine the Great
(Self-proclaimed Augustus) and Valerius Valens
Licinius

Licinius I (East) and
Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (West) with
Licinius

Licinius II,
Constantine II, and
Crispus

Crispus as Caesares
(Martinian)
Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great (whole empire) with son
Crispus

Crispus as Caesar
Constantine II
Constans

Constans I
Magnentius
,_300-302.JPG/440px-Impero,_magnezio,_multiplo_d'oro_(treviri),_300-302.JPG)
Magnentius with
Decentius as Caesar
Constantius II
.jpg/440px-Bust_of_Constantius_II_(Mary_Harrsch).jpg)
Constantius II with Vetranio
Julian
Jovian
Valentinian the Great
Valens
Gratian
Valentinian II
Magnus Maximus
_A_king,_possibly_Magnus_Maximus,_holding_a_sceptre.jpg/440px-Llanbeblig_Hours_(f._3r.)_A_king,_possibly_Magnus_Maximus,_holding_a_sceptre.jpg)
Magnus Maximus with Victor
Theodosius the Great
(Eugenius)
Western Empire
395–480
Honorius
Constantine III with son
Constans

Constans II)
Constantius III
Joannes
Valentinian III
Petronius Maximus
.jpg)
Petronius Maximus with Palladius
Avitus
Majorian
Libius Severus
Anthemius
Olybrius
Glycerius
Julius Nepos
Romulus Augustulus
Eastern/
Byzantine Empire
395–1204
Arcadius
Theodosius II
Pulcheria
Marcian
Leo I the Thracian
Leo II
Zeno (first reign)
Basiliscus

Basiliscus with son Marcus as co-emperor
Zeno (second reign)
Anastasius I Dicorus
Justin I
Justinian the Great
Justin II
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius II Constantine
Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor
Phocas
Heraclius
Constantine III
Heraklonas
Constans

Constans II
Constantine IV

Constantine IV with brothers
Heraclius

Heraclius and
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius and then Justinian
II as co-emperors
Justinian II

Justinian II (first reign)
Leontios
Tiberios III
Justinian II

Justinian II (second reign) with son
Tiberius
.jpg/440px-Tiberius,_Romisch-Germanisches_Museum,_Cologne_(8115606671).jpg)
Tiberius as co-emperor
Philippikos
Anastasios II
Theodosius III
Leo III the Isaurian
Constantine V
Artabasdos
Leo IV the Khazar
Constantine VI
Irene
Nikephoros I
Staurakios
Michael I Rangabe
,_coronation.jpg/440px-Michael_I_(Roman_emperor),_coronation.jpg)
Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor
Leo V the Armenian

Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor
Michael II

Michael II the Amorian
Theophilos
Michael III
Basil I

Basil I the Macedonian
Leo VI the Wise
Alexander
Constantine VII

Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos
Romanos I Lekapenos

Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as
junior co-emperors
Romanos II
Nikephoros II Phokas
John I Tzimiskes
Basil II
Constantine VIII
Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros
Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian
Michael V Kalaphates
Zoë (second reign) with Theodora
Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos
Constantine IX Monomachos

Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor)
Theodora
Michael VI Bringas
Isaac I Komnenos
Constantine X Doukas
Romanos IV Diogenes
Michael VII Doukas

Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son
Constantine
Nikephoros III Botaneiates
Alexios I Komnenos
John II Komnenos

John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor
Manuel I Komnenos
Alexios II Komnenos
Andronikos I Komnenos
Isaac II Angelos
Alexios III Angelos
Alexios IV Angelos
Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate)
Alexios V Doukas
Empire of Nicaea
1204–1261
Constantine Laskaris
Theodore I Laskaris
John III Doukas Vatatzes
Theodore II Laskaris
John IV Laskaris
Eastern/
Byzantine Empire
1261–1453
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Andronikos II Palaiologos
.jpg)
Andronikos II Palaiologos with
Michael IX Palaiologos

Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor
Andronikos III Palaiologos
John V Palaiologos
John VI Kantakouzenos

John VI Kantakouzenos with
John V Palaiologos

John V Palaiologos and Matthew
Kantakouzenos as co-emperors
John V Palaiologos
Andronikos IV Palaiologos
John VII Palaiologos
Andronikos V Palaiologos
Manuel II Palaiologos
John VIII Palaiologos
Constantine XI Palaiologos
Italics indicates a co-emperor, while underlining indicates an
usurper.
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 82440741
LCCN: n50030000
ISNI: 0000 0001 0844 9425
GND: 118544373
SELIBR: 205325
SUDOC: 027527530
BNF: cb11954875z (data)
ULAN: 50002